Q:(a) Most books (b) Most my books (c) Most of my books are in English. 這三句何者正確呢?

A:Most 這個字可當形容詞和代名詞用,若為形容詞,其後直接接名詞,如 Most birds can fly. (大多數的鳥都會飛),所以 (a) Most books are in English. (大部分的書都是英文書) 這句是對的。在這句中,名詞 books 並非指特定的書,如「我的書」、「這些書」、「那張桌子上的書」,而是泛指 (generic) 一般的書。

當 most 用作代名詞時,其後往往接介詞 of 再接特定或特指的 (specific) 名詞。所謂特指的名詞,就是名詞的前面加上 the, that, this, these, those 或所有格,如 my, his, their, Jack’s, Thomas’ 等等。所以 (c) Most of my books are in English. 也是正確的句子;換言之,(b) Most my books are in English. 這句是錯的,因為如果名詞是特指,most 後面的 of 不能省略。然而,如果名詞是泛指,則 most 後面就不能有 of,這就是上述 most 當形容詞用,後面直接接名詞的情況,所以 Most of books are in English. 也是錯的。

英文中這種兼具形容詞 (或限定詞) 和代名詞功能且用法與 most 完全相同的字或片語,還有 all (of), both (of), some (of), any (of), many (of), much (of), a few (of), a little (of), several (of), one (of), two (of), three (of) … 等等。例如:

  • Many students are going to study abroad. (正) (許多學生要出國留學)
    Many of my students are going to study abroad. (正) (我的學生當中有許多人要出國留學)
    Many my students are going to study abroad. (誤)
    Many of students are going to study abroad. (誤)
  • Some people are Chinese tourists. (正) (有些人是中國觀光客)
    Some of those people are Chinese tourists. (正) (那些人當中有些是中國觀光客)
    Some those people are Chinese tourists. (誤)
    Some of people are Chinese tourists. (誤)
  • Several windows were broken. (正) (有幾扇窗戶被砸破了)
    Several of the windows were broken. (正)
    Several the windows were broken. (誤)
    Several of windows were broken. (誤)

值得注意的是,當名詞為特指時,all 和 both 這兩個字後面的 of 可以省略,亦即它們後面的 of 可有可無。不過,若名詞為泛指,則其後同樣不可有 of。例如:

  • Almost all of my students are female. (正) (我的學生幾乎都是女生)
    Almost all my students are female. (正)
    All children deserve encouragement. (正) (所有的小孩都應得到鼓勵)
    All of children deserve encouragement. (誤)
  • I know both of his parents. (正) (我認識他的父母親)
    I know both his parents. (正)
    Both paintings are by the same artist. (正) (兩幅畫都是同一畫家畫的)
    Both of paintings are by the same artist. (誤)

最後要提的是,half 這個亦可當形容詞 (或限定詞) 和代名詞用的字,若接特指的名詞,其用法與 all 和 both 相同,亦即後面的 of 也是可有可無。例如:

  • Half of the children study Japanese. (正) (這些孩子當中有一半學日文)
    Half the children study Japanese. (正)
  • Nearly half of the employees complained of stress. (正) (近半數的員工抱怨壓力太大)
    Nearly half the employees complained of stress. (正)

Q:若不知某人的性別,那麼該用那個代名詞來指涉呢? 另外,everybody, anybody, somebody 等的正確代名詞又是什麼呢?

A:以前若是不知某人的性別,我們都使用 he 來指涉,如 If I find the person who has stolen my iPad, I’ll wring his neck! (如果讓我找到那個偷我 iPad 的人,我會扭斷他的脖子!)。但這樣的用法現在往往被視為性別歧視。現今可能的作法之一是使用 “he or she” (這是主格,其受格為 him or her,而所有格為 his or her;但它們也可以且往往寫成 he/she, him/her, his/her) 或 “(s)he”,但這看起來或聽起來都怪怪的。例如:

  • A baby cries when he or she is tired. (嬰兒累了就會哭)
  • If a student is absent because of illness, (s)he should call in sick. (如果學生因病缺席,他或她應打電話請病假)
  • If in doubt, ask your teacher. He/she can give you more information. (如果拿不定主意,可以問你的老師。他或她可以給你更多資訊)

這些寫法迄今仍不時用於正式寫作或書面文件中,但目前一般比較喜歡的作法是使用 they (them 或 their),尤其是在非正式談話中,即使所指涉的是單數名詞亦然。例如:

  • If a student is absent because of illness, they should call in sick. (如果學生因病缺席,他們應打電話請病假)

這些結構相當常用,尤其在 everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone, somebody, someone, nobody 以及「every, each, no + 單數的人 (如 person, child, boy, girl 等)」 之後,它們的代名詞通常使用 they (them 或 their)。例如:

  • Everyone should take their belongings with them. Don’t leave them on the shuttle bus. (每個人都應隨身帶著他們的物品。別把它們留在交通車上)
  • Does everybody know what they want? (每個人都瞭解他們想要什麼嗎?)
  • Somebody’s left their wallet here. (有人把他們的錢包留在這裡)
  • If anybody/anyone comes, ask them to wait. (要是有人來,叫他們等著)
  • Nobody plans to go on a trip to Phnom Penh, do they? (沒有人打算到金邊旅遊,對吧?)
  • Every student in the English class must have their own textbook. (英語班的每個學生都要有自己的課本)

這種結構對不知某人性別的情況以及男女性別皆有的情況都非常有用。當然了,若是單一性別,這種結構可能就不需要了。譬如說,如果交通車上的乘客都是女性,有人把傘留在車上,那麼我們可以簡單地這樣說:

  • Somebody has left her umbrella on the shuttle bus. Could she please come and collect it? (有人把她的傘留在車上。可以請她來拿回去嗎?)

然而,即使性別已知,我們也經常使用 they (them 或 their),尤其是在泛稱的敘述中。例如:

  • No girl under the age of 18 should be allowed to drink alcohol, or perhaps someday they will become a heavy drinker. (未滿 18 歲的女孩不應被允許喝酒,否則有朝一日她們可能成為酗酒者)

Q:anybody, any body, anyone 和 any one 有何不同呢?

A:Anybody 和 anyone 都是不定代名詞,兩者皆意為「任何人」(any person),可以互換,通常用於否定句、疑問句及條件句,如 Did anybody hear of such a thing? (有誰聽說過這樣的事嗎?);Anyone can cook because it’s easy. (任何人都會做飯,因為那很容易)。不過,anyone 比較常用,而 anybody 被視為非正式用字。當主詞用時,兩者都接單數動詞,而其相對應的代名詞可以是單數 he/she, him/her, his/her (正式) 或複數 they, them, their (非正式),如 If anybody[anyone] comes, ask him/her[them] to wait. (要是有人來,叫他/她 [他們] 等著)。

Any one 是一個由 any 所修飾的代名詞或形容詞,意為「任何一個人」(any single person) 或「任何一件事情或一樣東西」(any single thing),如 (代名詞) Any one of them may speak at the meeting. (他們任何人都可以在會議中發言);(形容詞) Linda has more work than any one person can handle. (琳達的工作量比任何人所能處理的工作量都要來得多)。

Any body 是一個由 any 所修飾的名詞,意為「任何人的身體或形體」(any human form) 或「任何團體或組織」(any group),如 Can anybody communicate with any body of government? (任何人都可以跟任何政府機關溝通嗎?)

ya

(副詞) 是 (yeah)

  • Ya, I’m here! (是,我在這裡)

(代名詞/主格、受格) 你 (you - 第二人稱單數)

  • Ya know what I mean? (你瞭解我的意思嗎?)
  • I’ve got some news for ya. (我有一些消息要告訴你)

(代名詞/所有格) 你的 (your)

  • Let’s go fix ya car. (我們去修你的車吧)

Q:所有動物都可以用 he 或 she 來指稱嗎?

A:我們可以用 he 或 she 來指吾人所飼養的寵物。事實上,英美人士幾乎都是這樣用。他們不僅用 he 或 she 來指自己的寵物,而且在第一次見到別人的寵物時也都使用 he 或 she。譬如說,某甲在公園見到一隻狗,即使他並不知道那隻狗是公的還是母的,他亦可能這樣問狗主人:”What a lovely dog, how old is he?” (好可愛的狗哦,他多大啦?),因為 “How old is it?” 的說法是很不禮貌的。

至於野生動物,我們通常使用 it 這個代名詞來指稱。譬如說,你跟你太太在公園散步聊天,忽然看見樹上有隻松鼠,你可以指著松鼠對她說:”Can you see that squirrel? It’s in the big tree over there.” (你有看到那隻松鼠嗎? 牠就在那邊的大樹上)。

然而,有些人有時可能使用 he 或 she 來指野生動物,如在馬戲團或野生動物表演節目中,表演者或主持人可能用 he 或 she 來指出場表演的動物。再者,在文學作品中,作者可能用 he 或 she 來指作品中的動物,因為各該動物也是作品中的「角色」。

我們之所以使用 he 或 she 來指寵物、野生動物或表演用的動物,主要目的就是將動物擬人化 (personalize)。不過,將寵物擬人化是日常生活慣用的禮貌性作法,而將野生動物擬人化則是文學常用的風格。

Q:Everyone was tired except John. (除約翰外,大家都累了) 這句為何可以寫成 Everyone except John was tired.,但卻不能寫成 Except John everyone was tired. 呢?

A:except 意為「除了…之外」(這是除去 except 後面所接的人事物,不包括在內)。在學習英文的過程中,相信有不少人被這個字以及與其形義相似、詞類相同 (皆為介系詞) 的 except for 和 excepting 搞得一個頭兩個大。因此,在此將就這三個意思相近、但用法不盡相同的字作一詳盡的說明,讓大家從此不再為其所苦。

首先來看 except 和 except for 用法上的差異:except 後面可以接名詞、代名詞、動詞、副詞、介詞片語或子句,而 except for 僅能接名詞或代名詞;所以,如果它們的後面是接名詞或代名詞,except 和 except for 在大多數情況中都是可以互換的。例如:

  • Everyone was tired except John. (除約翰外,大家都累了) — 接名詞。
  • They all went to the public library last Sunday except him. (除了他之外,上星期天他們都去了公立圖書館) — 接代名詞。
  • Every day Mary does nothing except watch TV. (瑪麗每天除了看電視外什麼事都不做) — 接動詞。

附帶說明:若句子的主動詞為 do/does/did,則 except 後面一般都是接省略 to 的原形動詞,如上句;若主動詞不是 do/does/did,則 except 通常是接帶 to 的不定詞,如 I had no choice except to obey his order. (我除了服從他的命令外別無選擇)。

  • He always goes to work by bike except recently. (除最近外,他都是騎腳踏車上班) — 接副詞。
  • I can take my holidays at any time except in August. (除八月外,我什麼時候休假都可以) — 接介詞片語。
  • I know nothing about him except that he lives next door. (我除了知道他住在我隔壁外,其他事情毫無所悉) — 接子句。
  • My father usually goes to work by motorbike except when it rains. (除下雨天外,我爸爸通常騎機車上班) — 接子句。

再者,

1. 在 all, any, every, no, none, anything, anybody, anyone, everything, everybody, everyone, nobody, nothing 等表示泛指的不定代名詞之後,一般都用 except 而不用 except for。例如:

  • She ate everything on the plate except the carrots. (除胡蘿蔔外,她把盤子裡的東西都吃了)
  • I’ve cleaned all the rooms except the toilet. (除廁所外,所有房間我都清掃了)

2. except 用於表示同類事物之間的關係,而 except for 表示非同類事物的比較。例如:

  • Everyone was tired except John. (除約翰外,大家都累了) — 句中 everyone 和 John 同類。
  • We go to school every day except Sunday. (除星期天外,我們天天上學) — 句中 every day 和 Sunday 同類。
  • Except for one old lady, the bus was empty. (除一位老太太乘坐外,這部公車空無一人) — 句中 old lady 和 bus 不同類。
  • The road was empty except for a few cars. (除了幾輛汽車外,這條路空蕩蕩的) — 句中 road 和 car 不同類。

附帶說明:儘管問題中的例句也可寫成 Everyone was tired except for John.,但根據第 1 和第 2 項敘述,我們還是寫成 Everyone was tired except John. 比較好。

3. except for 可置於句首,但 except 卻不行 — 這就是為何 Everyone was tired except John. 不能寫成 Except John everyone was tired. 的原因;所以,正確的寫法是 Except for John, everyone was tired.。再舉一例:

  • Except for Mike, we are all under 40. (除麥可外,我們均不到40歲)

4. except for 在表示對整體大部分的肯定和對小部分的否定 — 亦即包含大部分,除去小部分。例如:

  • Mr. Lin is a good man except for his bad temper. (除了脾氣不好外,林先生是個好人)
  • Your composition is quite excellent except for several spelling mistakes. (除了幾處拼字錯誤外,你的作文棒極了)

5. 僅 except for 有「若非;要不是」(= but for) 的意思,except 並無此義。例如:

  • She would have left her husband years ago except for the children. (要不是為了小孩,幾年前她就離開她丈夫了)。
    = She would have left her husband years ago but for the children.
    = She would have left her husband years ago if she had not had the children.
    = But that she had the children, she would have left her husband years ago.

最後來談 excepting。這是個比較正式的用字,可置於句首,其後通常接名詞或代名詞,或用於 not, without, always 等詞之後。例如:

  • Excepting Sundays, the library is open daily. (除星期天外,圖書館天天開放)
  • Dogs are not allowed in the shop, always excepting blind people’s guide dogs. (除了盲人的導盲犬外,其他的狗一律不准帶進那家商店)
  • I think we must keep improving our English not excepting those who have mastered it. (我認為我們必須不斷地增進我們的英語能力,就連那些業已精通英語的人士也不例外)
  • All of us, without excepting those who know more about the subject, should study. (我們所有人都要研究這主題,就連那些比較瞭解這主題的人也不例外)

Q:She saved what little she could from her meager income to help poor children. 這句的意思為何? 又句中的 what little 作何解釋?

A:這句的意思是「她把從她微薄的收入中所能省下來的一點點錢都用來幫助貧童」。至於句中的 what little 作何解釋,實非三言兩語就能說清楚,請看下面的解說。一般而言,what 有下列常見的用法:

A. 形容詞用法: B. 代名詞用法
  1. 疑問形容詞 —
    意為「什麼」。

    例句:What book did you buy? (你買了什麼書?)
     

  2. 關係形容詞
    (that…which, those… which, all…that, any…that) —
    意為「所…的」、「任何…的」、「所有…的」。

    例句:I gave what (few) books I had. (我把我僅有的書都給了他)
     

  3. 感嘆用法 —
    意為「多麼;真是;何等」。

    例句:What beautiful weather! (多麼好的天氣!);What a fool that man is!
    (那個人真傻!)

  1. 疑問代名詞 —
    意為「什麼」。

    例句:What is the price? (這價錢是多少?)
     

  2. 關係代名詞 (the
    thing or things that, that which, those which, all that, any
    that) — 意為「所…的人或事物」、「任何人或事物」、「所有人或事物」。

    例句:I believed what he told me. (我相信他對我所說的)
     

至於 what little 中的 what,就是上述關係形容詞的用法 — 有些字典和外國文法書稱這 what 為「前置限定詞」(predeterminer)。這可謂 what 的一種特殊用法或句型,因為 what 後面的名詞一定是不可數名詞或複數可數名詞,所以如果上述關係形容詞的例句寫成 I gave what book I had.,那就錯了 (book 須為複數);再舉一例:What people (複數可數名詞) I met there were very friendly to me. = All the people that I met there were very friendly to me. (我在那兒所碰到的人都對我非常友好)。此外,這 what 除了「任何…的」、「所有…的」意思外,還有一個特殊的意思,那就是「盡可能的」(as much…as),如 I will give you what help (不可數名詞) I can. = I will give you as much help as I can. (我會盡力幫助你)。

what 在這種用法中經常和 few 或 little 連用,然後再修飾名詞,意為「全部的…儘管不多」「雖少但全部」或「所僅有的…」。這就是 I gave what books I had. 被譯為「我把我僅有的書都給了他」(換言之,它的意思是說「我的書全部都給了他,儘管這些書為數不多」) 的依據 。由於 what 和 few 或 little 經常連用,有些字典就把它們列為慣用語。在問題的句子中,what little 是 what little money 的省略,而這又等於 all the little money that,所以該句可以改寫為 She saved all the little money that she could from her meager income to help poor children.。再舉一例: We did what little we could to help the refugees. (我們盡了自己僅有的一點力量去幫助那些難民)。

what few 或 what little 中的 few 或 little 有時可省略,如上述關係形容詞的例句 I gave what (few) books I had.,又如 I contributed what (little) money (= all the little money that I had) towards the fund. (我把僅有的一點錢都捐給了那個基金)。再者, what little 之後往往不加名詞,本身就作代名詞用,在自己所引導的子句中作主詞或受詞,意思不變,如 I told him what little I knew on the subject. (我把我對這主題僅知道的一點都告訴了他) — 上面的例句和問題中的句子也說明了這一點。

事實上,what 在作關係代名詞時,它所引導的名詞子句,有時也有上述的含意,如 I gave him what I had. (我把我所有的都給了他);He deposits what he saves in a bank. (他把他所省下來的錢都存入銀行)。