Distrust, mistrust (vv., nn.)

Distrust 和 mistrust 當 (及物) 動詞用時均意為「不信任,不相信,懷疑」,通常可以互換,如 Somehow I distrust/mistrust the whole business. (不知怎麼地,我就是不相信這整件事) ;He distrusts/mistrusts banks, so he keeps his money at home. (他認為銀行靠不住,所以把錢存在家裡)。

然而,distrust 比 mistrust 要來得常用,且含有「猜忌;猜疑」(suspicion) 的意思,所以當某人曾經有欺騙或其他負面行為或某事物曾經造成危害或產生不良影響,或者當事人認為某人或某事物可能會做出上述行為或發生上述情況,因而對該等人事物產生不信任感或懷疑時,一般都使用 distrust 而不用 mistrust,如 I have known him to be deceitful in the past and I have come to distrust everything he says. (我知道他過去愛騙人,所以我對他所說的事情一概不信);Most people distrust politicians. (大多數人都不信任政客);He distrusts her because he thinks she’ll cheat him. (他不信任她,因為他認為她會騙他)。

Mistrust 是指比較不確定或不是很肯定的「不信任」或指對自己相關事物的「懷疑」,如 There was something about her manner that made me uneasy and I found myself beginning to mistrust her. (某件跟她態度有關的事情令我不安,結果我發現自己開始不信任她);She told herself she had no reason to mistrust him. (她告訴自己沒有理由不信任他);Why do you mistrust him so much? He seems honest enough to me. (你為何如此不信任他呢? 我覺得他似乎很老實);I mistrust my own judgment when it comes to my appointment of Mike as new English teacher. (談到我聘任麥可為新的英文老師一事,我懷疑自己的判斷力)。

Distrust 和 mistrust 亦皆可當 (不可數) 名詞用,意思也同樣為「不信任,不相信,懷疑」,其後經常與介系詞 of 連用,如 The child looked at the stranger with distrust. (那孩子用懷疑的目光望著陌生人);I have a distrust of airplanes. (我對飛機信不過);Mistrust between the two countries is intense. (兩國間彼此非常不信任);He has a deep/strong mistrust of anything new. (他對任何新事物都極不信任)。

再者,distrust 和 mistrust 的形容詞分別為 distrustful 和 mistrustful,兩者均意為「不信任的,不相信的,懷疑的」,其後亦經常與介系詞 of 連用,但 mistrustful 有時也與 toward 連用,如 The old woman is distrustful of her children’s intentions. (這位老婦人懷疑她子女的意圖);They were profoundly distrustful of anything new. (他們對任何新事物都極不信任);She was mistrustful of Frank’s loyalty. (她懷疑法蘭克的忠誠);My wife was becoming increasingly mistrustful toward doctors. (我太太越來越不相信醫生)。

Comic (adj., n.), comical (adj.)

當形容詞用時,comic 和 comical 雖在一些上下文中可以互換,但並非完全同義詞。

Comic 和 comical 均意為「滑稽的,好笑的」,但 comic 是指事先計畫好、有意使人發笑或產生娛樂「笑」果,而 comical 則是指無意間使人發笑或產生娛樂「笑」果,如 The play had comic moments. (這齣戲裡有一些搞笑的片段);The students gave a comic performance. (學生做了滑稽表演);Her comic songs did not raise a smile. (她的滑稽歌曲未使人發笑);The teacher wore a comical hat. (老師戴了一頂滑稽可笑的帽子);It was quite comical to see him sit there quietly. (看他靜靜地坐在那裡頗為好笑);a comical act (滑稽可笑的行為)。

此外,comic 還意為「喜劇的」(僅用於名詞之前),而這是 comical 所沒有的意思,如 He is a comic actor/writer. (他是喜劇演員/作家)。所以,從上述可知,a comic situation 和 a comical situation 的意思並不相同,前者是指事先經過安排的喜劇的情節,而後者是指無意間引發的滑稽可笑或好笑的場面或情況。

Comic 還可當名詞用,有兩個意思,一為「漫畫書」(= comic book。連環漫畫叫做 comic strip),如 I’ve read many comics (or comic books). (我已看了許多漫畫書);另一為「喜劇演員」(= comedian),如 His father is one of the world’s best-known comics (or comedians). (他父親是全世界最有名的喜劇演員之一)。

Divide, divide up (vv.)

Divide 可當及物和不及物動詞用,經常與介系詞 into 和 in 連用 (divide sth into pairs/groups/parts 等等),意為「分;分成;劃分;分割」,如 The teacher divided the class into three groups. (老師把全班分成三個小組);The film divides into two distinct halves. (影片分成明顯不同的兩半);He divided his students in half. (他將他的學生分成兩半)。這動詞亦常與 among 和 between 連用 (divide sth between/among sb),意為「分配;分發;分享」,如 The children divided the candy between/among themselves. (孩子們把糖果分吃了);After his death his property was divided between/among his children. (他死後,他的財產由他的孩子們平分);The chamber was nearly equally divided between conservative and liberal deputies. (議會中保守派和自由派議員的人數幾乎各半);The prize money will be equally divided between/among the three winners. (獎金將由三名優勝者均分)。

Divide 亦不時與 from 連用 (divide sth from sth),意為「使分開;使隔開」,如 A low wall divides our garden from theirs. (一道矮牆把我們的花園和他們的隔開);The railway divides his family’s land from the plains below. (鐵路把他家的土地與下面的平原隔開)。這動詞還可跟 over, on 和 upon 連用來表示「分裂;意見分歧」的意思,如 The Board of Directors divided on [upon, over] the new project. (董事會對這個新計劃意見分歧);My family divided on [upon, over] almost every political issue. (我家人對幾乎每個政治議題都各持己見)。此外,divide 與 with 連用的情況亦所在多有,其句型與 divide sth between/among sb 等量齊觀,即 divide sth with sb,意思同樣為「分配;分發;分享」,如 Work out how you would like to divide the money with us. (商量一下,你打算如何跟我們分這筆錢);You have to divide the cake with your sister. (你必須跟你妹妹分吃這塊蛋糕)。

Divide 也是數學上不可或缺的用字,其後接 by (divide sth by sth),意為「除以」,若接 into (divide sth into sth),則意為「除」,如 10 divided by 2 is/equals 5. (10 除以 2 等於 5);Divide 10 by 2 (10 除以 2 或用 2 除 10);2 divides into 10 5 times./Two divides into ten 5 times. (2 除 10 得 5);Divide 2 into 10 (2 除 10)。divide by 除了「除以」的意思外,還有一個比較普遍化的意思,那就是「使分歧;使分裂」,如 The ruling class was divided by internal conflicts. (統治階級因內部衝突而分裂);We are divided by our nationalities, our languages, and our religions. (我們因國籍、語言和宗教信仰的不同而分歧)。

至於 divide up,這片語與 divide 完全同義,意為「分成;分開;分割;分配;分發;分享」,如 The prize money will be equally divided up between/among the three winners. (獎金將由三名優勝者均分);The teacher divided the class up into three groups. (老師把全班分成三個小組);a secret Soviet-German pack for dividing/dividing up Europe in 1940 (1940 年瓜分歐洲的蘇德秘密條約)。職是之故,divide up 跟 break up, think up 及其它與 up 組成的片語一樣,在某些情況中會被視為贅詞,因為 up 被認為是多餘的。然而,divide 和 divide up 都是正規英語。這些 up 組成的片語動詞有些是慣用語 (break 和 break up 並非相同的動作 — break 可意為「打破」或「打碎」,而 break up 一定是「打碎」),有些是用來加強語氣或基於文體的需要。當 up 可省略時,保守派人士通常選擇省略 up 以求文體的簡潔。

Besides, apart from, aside from, except (for), in addition to (preps.)

這幾個字和片語都當介系詞用,且都意為「除…之外」。雖然表面上它們的意思似乎完全一樣,但實際上它們的含意並不盡相同,所以在應用上必須多加留意。

Besides 的意思是「除…之外還有」,亦即將其後的人事物「包括在內」,如 Five of us passed the exam besides John. (除了約翰通過考試之外,我們還有五人通過) — 通過考試的人包括約翰在內,亦即約翰也過關。

Except (for) 的意思是「不包括…在內」,亦即「除去…」,如 All of us passed the exam except John. (除約翰外,我們都通過考試) — 通過考試的人不包括約翰在內,亦即約翰未過關。

In addition to 除了在少數情況中不能與 besides 互換外,其他大多數情況都與 besides 等量齊觀,如 Milk, in addition to (= besides) fruit juices, is the best drink for children. (除果汁外,牛奶也是兒童的最佳飲料) — 兒童的最佳飲料包括果汁在內。

Apart from 和 aside from 則兼具 besides 和 except (for) 的意思,所以必須從上下文來判斷它們真正的意思,如 Apart/Aside from the new freshmen, all the students were there. (除新生外,所有學生都在那裡) — 新生不在那裡 (在此 apart/aside from = except for);Apart/aside from being too large, it just doesn’t suit me. (除了太大之外,它也不適合我) — 在此 apart/aside from = besides。值得一提的是,apart from 在美式英語和英式英語都是標準用法,而 aside from 主要是美國的用法,且以「不包括在內」的意思比較常見。

Above, over (preps.)

這兩個字皆可當介系詞、副詞和形容詞用,其中 above 還可當名詞用。就介系詞用法而言,除了幾個不同的意思外,它們均意為「(指位置) 在…的上面,在…之上」。因此,在許多上下文中,它們經常可互換使用,如 Our bedroom is above/over the kitchen. (我們的臥室在廚房上面);Let’s hang the oil painting above/over the fireplace. (讓我們把油畫掛在壁爐上方)。然而,在其他情況中,它們「在…的上方」的含意還是有所區別,本文將探討它們之間細微的差異。

Above (反義詞為 below) 僅表示某物處於另一物上方的位置,如 The moon is now above the trees. (月亮現在位於樹梢上);There’s a row of houses on the hillside above the river. (河邊山坡上有一排房子);Raise your hands above your head. (把你的手舉到頭上)。

Over (反義詞為 under) 是表示某物處於另一物正上方的位置,但往往用來表示上面的物體從一邊移動到另一邊的情況;事實上,當上面的物體有動作時,over 是這兩個介系詞當中唯一的用字,如 A plane flew over the house. (一架飛機飛過了房子);The sheep jumped over the wall. (羊跳過牆)。此外,當表示某物遮蔽、覆蓋另一物時也要使用 over,如 She put a scarf over her hair. (她把圍巾戴在頭上);We spread a carpet over the floor. (我們在地板鋪上了地毯);He pulled the blanket over his head and fell asleep. (他把毯子拉上來遮著頭睡著了);They built a roof over the courtyard. (他們給庭院蓋了個頂棚)。

Below, beneath, under, underneath (preps.)

這四個字皆可當介系詞和副詞用,其中 underneath 還可當形容詞和名詞用。就介系詞用法而言,除了若干不同的意思外,它們均意為「(指位置) 在…的下面,在…之下」,本文將僅就這意思來探討它們之間細微的差異。

Below (反義詞為 above) 僅表示某一事物處於另一事物下方的位置,如 The lake is almost 300 meters below the sea. (這湖低於海平面將近 300 公尺);There’s a river below the village. (在村子的下面有一條河);Her skirt came below her knees. (她的裙子長及膝蓋之下);There’s a gunshot wound below his left shoulder. (他的左肩下方有一處槍傷)。

Beneath 是表示某一事物處於另一事物正下方的位置,但含有兩物相距不是很近的意思,如 We took shelter beneath a huge tree. (我們躲在一棵大樹下);The boat sank beneath the waves. (船沈沒於波濤之下);They slept outside beneath the stars. (他們露宿在繁星之下);The submarine waited, far beneath the ship. (潛艇遠在那艘船的下面等待著)。

Under (反義詞為 over) 亦表示某一事物處於另一事物正下方的位置,但往往用來表示下面的物體從一邊移動到另一邊的情況;事實上,當下面的物體有動作時,under 是這四個介系詞當中唯一的用字,如 We took shelter under a huge tree. (我們躲在一棵大樹下);What are you wearing under your coat? (你外套裡面穿什麼?);We drove under the bridge and came out into the High Street. (我們開車經過橋下,來到商業大街);That boy crawled under the fence. (那男孩從柵欄下面爬了過去);What are you kids doing under the table? (你們這些小孩在桌子底下幹什麼?)。

Underneath 在「靜態」方面的用法與 under 相近,如 The baby girl liked to sit underneath/under the table. (這小女孩喜歡坐在桌子底下)。然而,underneath 主要在強調遮蓋、接觸或藏匿的意思,所以下面的例句宜使用 underneath 而不用 under:Everybody got underneath the tables to escape the gunfire. (大家都鑽到桌子下面躲避槍擊);The President was partially crushed underneath the helicopter as it hit the ground. (直昇機墜地時壓住了總統的部分身體);That letter had been pushed underneath the carpet by accident. (那封信偶然地被推到地毯的下面了);I’ll leave the key underneath the mat. (我會把鑰匙放在墊子下面)。

Defensible, defensive (adjs.)

這兩個拼字相近的形容詞,意思並不相同。defensible 意為「(見解,主張、看法等) 可辯護的,站得住腳的;(地方) 能防禦的,能保衛的」,如 Although opinions differ on this matter, mine is defensible. (雖然對這件事各人的看法不一,但我的看法是站得住腳的);His behavior was perfectly defensible. (他的行為是完全可以辯解的);This is a defensible fortress/position. (這是個能防禦的堡壘/位置)。這個字的反義詞為 indefensible。

Defensive 意為「防衛性的,防衛用的;(人或行為) 防衛的,守勢的,自衛的;(比賽中) 防守的」,如 The United States has decided to sell more defensive weapons to Taiwan. (美國已決定出售更多防衛性武器給台灣);The rebels adopted defensive tactics temporarily. (叛軍暫時採取防衛性戰術);She became very defensive when I asked her how much the car had cost. (當我問她這輛車多少錢時,她便充滿戒心,不願多談);They made a strong defensive effort in the second half of the game. (他們下半場頑強地防守)。defensive 還可當名詞用,但僅用在 be on the defensive (採取守勢)、put sb on the defensive (使某人處於守勢) 等片語中,如 The scandal has put the school’s leadership on the defensive. (這項醜聞已使學校領導階層處於守勢)。

就「防衛性的,防衛用的;防守的」意思而言,defensive 的反義詞為 offensive,意為「攻擊性的;(比賽中) 進攻的」,如 The United States provided the Iraqi army with offensive weapons. (美國提供伊拉克軍隊攻擊性武器);They are offensive players. (他們是進攻型球員)。從上述可知,互為相反詞的 defensive 和 offensive 僅用於名詞前。同樣地,offensive 亦可當名詞用,但僅用在 be on the offensive (採取攻勢)、go on the offensive 或 take the offensive (率先攻擊,先發制人) 等片語中。

Climactic (adj.), climatic (adj.), climacteric (adj., n.)

這三個字的意思截然不同,但相近的拼字和發音,有時還是會讓人搞混的。climactic 是 climax 的形容詞,意為「高潮的;形成高潮的」 — climax 意為「(小說、影片、戲劇或事件等的) 高潮;性高潮,性快感 (orgasm)」:a climactic car chase (掀起高潮的汽車追逐場面)。climatic 是 climate 的形容詞,意為「氣候的」:These climatic conditions are unsuitable for outdoor activities. (這些氣候狀況不適合戶外活動)。

Climacteric 可當名詞和形容詞用,名詞意為「更年期 (男女適用)」– 如女性停經 (menopause),但它還有一通俗的意思,即「(人生的) 重要時期;轉折期」,而形容詞意為「更年期的,重要時期的;重要的,決定性的」:The symptoms associated with the climacteric period have now been well documented in other countries. (其他國家對於與更年期有關的症狀現已有充分的文件記載)。

Drunk, drunken (adjs.)

這兩個形容詞都意為「(酒) 醉的」,但 drunk 通常用在動詞之後,其型態為 BE 動詞、get 等連綴動詞 + drunk (on + 所喝的酒),而 drunken 通常用在名詞之前,如 He got drunk on only two glasses of wine. (他才喝了兩杯葡萄酒就醉了);He got dead drunk on only two cans of beer. (他才喝了兩罐啤酒就爛醉如泥);There was a drunken man lying on the ground. (地上躺了一名醉漢)。drunk 經常與其他字連用來構成固定搭配,如 blind/dead/roaring drunk, drunk as a skunk/lord,這幾個片語均意為「酩酊大醉,爛醉如泥」(= very drunk),如 He is blind/dead drunk./He is drunk as a skunk. (他喝得酩酊大醉)。drunk 還可當名詞用,意為「酒鬼,酗酒者;醉漢」,為一貶抑詞。

Drunk 可用於比喻,但 drunken 則不行。drunk 的比喻意思為「陶醉的;興奮的;暈頭轉向的」,其後接介系詞 with,如 John is drunk with power. (約翰醉心於權力);He was drunk with success. (他陶醉於成功中);She felt drunk with rage. (她氣得暈頭轉向)。不過,drunken 除了「(酒) 醉的」意思外,還意為「酒醉引起的」,如 My uncle had a drunken sleep. (我叔叔喝醉後呼呼大睡);He collapsed in a drunken stupor. (他醉得不省人事而倒在地上);a drunken brawl/rage (酒後鬧事/狂怒)。在英國,酒醉鬧事、擾亂治安是一種犯罪行為,但這一法律用語並非 drunken brawl,而是 drunk and disorderly,如 The police charged him with being drunk and disorderly. (警方指控他酒醉鬧事、擾亂治安)。

然而,由於 drunk 暗指一時或暫時的酒醉,而 drunken 暗指習慣性的酗酒,因此當需要強調這項差別時,這兩個形容詞慣常的用法規則可以反其道而行,亦即 drunk 用於名詞之前,而 drunken 用於動詞之後,這也就是「酒後駕車」的英文可以是drunk driving 或 drunken driving 的原因;在英國,「酒後駕車」還可說成或寫成 drink-driving。drunken 用於動詞之後的情況其實並不多見,如 He was usually drunken and foul-mouthed. (他經常酗酒又爆粗口)。不過,在法律上,酒後駕車的正式用語並非drunk/drunken driving,而是 DWI (driving while intoxicated) — intoxicated 意為「(酒) 醉的;陶醉的」,如 He was arrested for/charged with DWI. (他因酒後駕車被捕/他被控酒後駕車)。除了 DWI之外,還有另一個表示「酒後駕車」的用語亦不時被使用,那就是 DUI (driving under the influence)。

Converse, inverse, obverse, reverse (adjs., nn.)

這四個字的 -verse 部分意為「轉動」(to turn),而字首則表示轉動的方向或本質。

Converse 當形容詞用時意為「(觀點、信仰或陳述等) 相反的」,如 I hold the converse opinion. (我持相反的意見)。converse 當名詞用時意為「相反的事物、相反的說法、相反的意思;反面的言詞或陳述」,其前必須加上定冠詞 the,而其後經常接 of + 受詞,如 “Buyer” is the converse of “seller.” (Buyer 是 seller 的相反詞);”It’s windy but not wet” is the converse of “It’s wet but not windy.” (It’s windy but not wet 是 It’s wet but not windy 的反面說法);You say that your mother dislikes you but in fact the converse is true – you dislike your mother. (你說你母親不喜歡你,但其實情形恰好相反 — 是你討厭你母親)。converse 的副詞 conversely 意為「另一方面;從另一方面來看」(on the other hand),如 This newspaper story could damage their reputation; conversely, it will give them a lot of free publicity. (報紙上的這篇報導可能損害他們的名譽,不過從另一方面來看,它將為他們做大量免費的宣傳)。事實上,converse 還可當動詞用,就是 conversation (會話,談話) 的動詞,意為「談話,交談」,它的重音在第二音節;當名詞用的 converse,重音在第一音節,而當形容詞用的 converse,重音可在第一或第二音節。

Inverse當形容詞用時意為「(次序、位置、數量或大小等) 相反的;顛倒的;逆向的」,經常用在 in reverse proportion/relation/relationship (to) –「(與…) 成反比」– 這類片語中,如 The human population was growing in inverse proportion/relation to that of the lions and elephants. (人口成長與獅子和大象的數量成長成反比);Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. (減法是與加法相反的運算)。inverse 當名詞用時意為「相反的事物;顛倒的事物;(數學的) 倒數」,亦總是以 the inverse (of) 的型態出現,如 The inverse of 4 is 1/4. (4 的倒數是 1/4)。就使用頻率而言,當形容詞用的 inverse 比當名詞用的 inverse 要來得常用。inverse 無論是當形容詞或名詞用,重音都是在第二音節。

Obverse是個正式字,是這四個字當中最不常見的,當形容詞用時意為「正面的;對應的」,如 The obverse side of a coin or medal has the head or design on it. (硬幣或獎章的正面有人頭或圖案)。obverse 當名詞用時意為「(硬幣、獎章及其他扁平物體的) 正面;對立面;對應的事物,相對物 (counterpart)」,也都是以 the obverse (of) 的型態出現,如 The obverse of love is hate. (愛的反面是恨);Defeat is the obverse of victory. (失敗是勝利的反面);Nobody liked his proposition but the obverse was equally unattractive. (誰也不喜歡他的論點,但相對的論點也同樣不討喜)。當名詞用的 obverse,重音在第一音節,而當形容詞用的 obverse,重音在第二音節。

Reverse是這四個字當中最常用和最常見的,當形容詞用時意為「(位置、方向等) 相反的,反向的,顛倒的;反面的,背面的」,僅用於名詞之前,如 This time it came in the reverse direction. (這一次它是從相反的方向來的);She then looked at the reverse side of the coin. (接著她看了看錢幣的反面);in reverse order (次序顛倒);Now arrange the numbers in reverse order. (現在倒過來排列這些數字)。reverse 當名詞用時意為「相反;(硬幣、獎章及其他扁平物體的) 反面,背面;倒車檔」,除「倒車檔」之外,亦同樣皆以 the reverse (of) 的型態出現,如 They did the reverse of what the teacher told them to do. (他們做的與老師的要求相反);The truth is just the reverse. (真實的情況恰好相反);Quite the reverse is true. (真實的情況恰好相反);There’s a picture of an eagle on the reverse of the coin. (硬幣的背面是隻老鷹的圖案);Drive the car in reverse (= reverse gear) until you get out of the alley. (倒車直到你開出這條巷子)。就硬幣等的正反面而言,obverse 和 reverse 是相反詞;硬幣的正反面亦分別叫做 head 和 tail。

事實上,reverse 還可當動詞用,而且是個相當常用的字,意為「顛倒,翻轉,使倒轉;轉變,改變;倒車;推翻,撤銷 (法庭判決)」,如 Their positions are now reversed. (他們的地位現在顛倒過來了);His coat can be reversed when it begins to rain. (他的外衣在下雨時能翻過來穿);The stock market reversed course and closed with a modest gain. (股市止跌回升,以小幅上漲作收);The new government set about reversing previous policies. (新政府開始改變以前的政策);He reversed his car into the garage. (他倒車入庫);The court reversed its decision. (法庭撤銷了原來的判決)。reverse 無論是當形容詞、名詞或動詞用,重音都是在第二音節。