Q: 國內不少人使用的 Yxxxx!字典有 “The dollar has gone down against the yen, therefore Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans.” 這樣一個例句。但這句對嗎?

A:這句犯了一個相當常見且非常嚴重的錯誤,也就是英文所謂的「逗點謬誤」 (comma fault or run-on error),即兩個句子之間沒有連接詞而是用逗點來當連接詞。這種句子被稱為 run-on sentences。問題的癥結在於 therefore 是個副詞,卻被當作連接詞。所以問題中的句子應改為

  • The dollar has gone down against the yen, and therefore Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans. (美元兌日元的匯率下跌了,因此日本商品對美國人來說比較貴了) - 這句沒有下句好。

  • The dollar has gone down against the yen; therefore, Japanese goods are more expensive for Americans.

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Q:Could I borrow your pen? 和 May I borrow your pen? 哪一句比較有禮貌呢?

A:在英文中,有幾種句型可以表示禮貌性請求。在此我們將討論最常見的以 “I” 和以 “you” 作主詞的禮貌性請求。首先來看以 I 當主詞的禮貌性請求,如 Could I borrow your pen (please)?;May I (please) borrow your pen? (注意:please 可以放在句末或主詞後面)。這兩句都意為「我可以借你的筆嗎?」,而且禮貌程度等量齊觀、不相上下。不過,要注意的是,在禮貌性請求中,could 係表示現在或未來的意義,並非過去的意義。此外,我們亦可使用 Can I borrow your pen?,但 Can I 係用於非正式場合,尤其是用在說話者對他或她相當熟識的人提出請求的場合。一般通常認為 Can I 的禮貌程度略低於 Could I 或 May I。事實上,Might I 也可以表示禮貌性請求,如 Might I borrow your pen?,但 Might I 係用於非常正式且講究禮貌的場合,所以它的使用頻率比 Could I 或 May I 低很多。

對於以 I 當主詞的禮貌性請求,一般典型的回應是 “Certainly”、”Yes, certainly”、”Of course”、”Yes, of course” 或 “Sure” (非正式)。吾人亦經常使用動作來回應禮貌性請求,如點頭、搖頭或只是「嗯」(uh-huh) 一聲。

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Q:如何把想要表達的東西都寫在同一句,也就是說,如何延伸句子呢?

A:在英文中,許多功能都是藉由標點符號來達成,句子的延伸亦然。我們可以使用冒號 (colon) (:)、分號 (semicolon) (;)、破折號 (dash) (–) 和省略符號 (ellipsis) (…) 來延伸句子,把想要表達的東西都寫在同一句。此外,值得一提的是,冒號後面第一個字通常大寫,而分號後面第一個字則一定小寫。請看下面的敘述:

使用冒號係對句中前面提到的事物提供更多資訊或做進一步的解釋。例如:

  • There are three pets in the house now: A cat, a dog, and a hamster. (現在屋內有三隻寵物:一隻貓、一隻狗和一隻倉鼠)
  • The management blamed the workers’ sit-in for one thing: Paul’s incitement. (資方把工人靜坐示威歸咎於一件事:保羅的煽動)

使用分號可以起轉折 (transition) 作用而不必開始一個新的句子來敘述兩件相關的事物。分號的轉折作用比句點來得好。例如:

  • My professor did not approve of my App; he found it completely useless. (我的教授不贊同我寫的 App;他認為那個應用程式毫無用處)
  • No one was killed in the explosion; the only damage was a house that was razed to the ground. (無人在爆炸中喪命;唯一的損壞是一間房子被夷為平地)

由於分號具有轉折作用,因此分號的後面往往接 however, therefore, consequently, of course, for example, as a result, on the contrary 等轉折詞,做為句子前半部和後半部的橋樑。例如:

  • I am leaving now; however, I will be back on Friday to come to your birthday party. (我現在要離開了;不過,我禮拜五會回來參加你的生日派對)
  • I talked with my best friend until the early hours; consequently, I overslept. (我跟我最要好的朋友聊到凌晨;結果我睡過頭了)
  • Angela is in your class; of course, you know her. (安琪拉和你同班;你當然認識她)
  • John does not loathe wrestling; on the contrary, he quite likes it. (約翰並不討厭摔角;相反地,他相當喜歡摔角)

使用省略符號可以起句子走文或說話停頓的作用,而且在引句中可以省略一些字。例如:

  • “I’m wondering if I …” Jack said. (傑克說:「我想知道我是否 …」)
  • A credit card stolen from a man in Taipei was used to pay for a Chinese meal 18 hours later … in Los Angeles. (一張在台北竊自一名男子的信用卡,18 小時後在洛杉磯被用來支付一頓中式餐飲的賬單)
  • The ceremony honored ten brilliant athletes … visiting the U.S. (這項儀式表揚了十位正在美國訪問的傑出運動員)
    - 原句可能是:The ceremony honored ten brilliant athletes from Taiwan who were visiting the U.S. (這項儀式表揚了十位正在美國訪問、來自台灣的傑出運動員),其中省略了 “from Taiwan who were”,並代之以省略符號。

如果您想不起來上述任何一項規則,或者還沒完全弄懂冒號、分號和省略符號的用法,那麼就使用破折號,因為破折號具有這三者的功能。例如:

  • The management blamed the workers’ sit-in for one thing – Paul’s incitement. (破折號取代冒號)
  • No one was killed in the explosion – the only damage was a house that was razed to the ground. (破折號取代分號)
  • A credit card stolen from a man in Taipei was used to pay for a Chinese meal 18 hours later – in Los Angeles. (破折號取代省略符號)

Q:網路上有人說 Who am I to say you love me? 這句的翻譯是「我該對誰說你愛我?」,這意思對嗎?

A:在回答問題之前,我們先來看不久前教宗方濟各 (Pope Francis) 訪問巴西後飛返羅馬途中,在飛機上針對同性戀神職人員問題所講的一句話:”If someone is gay and he searches for the Lord and has good will, who am I to judge?”。教宗這句話中的 Who am I to judge? 跟問題中的 Who am I to say you love me? 顯然是同一句型。

若按照網路上的翻譯方式,那麼教宗這句話應譯成「如果有人是同性戀,而能心懷善念追尋上帝,我該對誰評斷?」顯然地,「我該對誰評斷」的語意不是很清楚,因為它的意思並不正確。Who am I to …? 和 Who are you to …? 等句型的正確意思是「我/你憑什麼?」、「我/你有什麼資格?」、「我/你算哪根蔥?」、「我/你算老幾?」。所以 Who am I to judge? 的正確意思是「我有什麼資格評斷?」(亦即我沒有資格論斷),而 Who am I to say you love me? 是「我有什麼資格說你愛我?」或「我憑什麼說你愛我?」。

從中文翻譯來看,這種句型的應用應該相當廣泛,而事實也是如此。請看下面的例句:

  • Who am I to argue with the principal? (跟校長爭論? 我算老幾?)
  • Who am I to argue with my boss? (跟老闆爭辯? 我算哪根蔥?」
  • Who are you to do so? (你憑什麼這麼做? /你有什麼資格這樣做?)
  • Who are they to be singers? (想當歌星? 他們算哪根蔥?)
  • Who is Ted to meddle in our affairs? (泰德憑什麼管我們的事?)
  • It is his own decision to get divorced and who is anyone to stand in his way? (離婚是他自己的決定,任何人憑什麼阻攔他?)

Q:在 I don’t know what to do. 這句中,what to do 是當 know 的受詞,那麼它是不是某個句子的減化呢? 若是,它的原句為何呢?

A:what, which, when, where, who, whom, whose, how 等 wh-字和 whether 的後面都可以接不定詞來用作名詞片語。既然是名詞片語,那麼它們一定是從名詞子句減化 (reduce) 而來,換言之,它們的原句都是名詞子句。用英文來表達就是:A noun phrase is a reduction of a noun clause.。

在進入主題之前,我們先來談關係子句 (形容詞子句) 的一個減化規則,那就是若子句中含有 should, would, must, can, may 等情態助動詞 (modals or modal auxiliaries),那麼句子減化時須將情態助動詞變成不定詞。例如:

The man to remember (= whom you/we/everyone should remember) is Bill. (吾人應該記得的人是比爾)

這規則亦適用於名詞子句。所以,「wh-字 + 不定詞」的原句一定含有情態助動詞。然而,「wh-字 + 不定詞」中的不定詞只有「應該」或「能」的含義,亦即它們只對應 should 或 can/could (現在式用 can,過去式用 could),並無其他情態助動詞的意思。例如:

  • I don’t know what to do. (我不知道做什麼)
  • I don’t know what I should do. (我不知道我該做什麼)
  • Wendy found two smartphones she liked, but she had difficulty deciding which one to buy. (溫蒂發現兩支她都喜歡的智慧型手機,但她難以決定買哪一支)
  • Wendy found two smartphones she liked, but she had difficulty deciding which one she should buy. (溫蒂發現兩支她都喜歡的智慧型手機,但她難以決定她該買哪一支)
  • Tony can’t decide whether to hang out with his friends or (to) stay home tonight. (東尼不能決定今晚是要和朋友廝混在一起還是留在家裡)
  • Tony can’t decide whether he should hang out with his friends or stay home tonight. (東尼不能決定今晚他該和朋友廝混在一起還是留在家裡)
  • Please tell me how to find these reference books? (請告訴我怎樣找到這些參考書)
  • Please tell me how I can find these reference books? (請告訴我怎樣我才能找到這些參考書)
  • Professor Lee told me how to teach English. (李教授告訴我怎樣教英文)
  • Professor Lee told me how I could teach English. (李教授告訴我怎樣我才能教英文)

在上面這五組例句中,各組兩句的意思並無不同。

Q:在 The house which Allen lives in is the oldest in the community. 這句中,which 是否可以用 where 來代替呢?

A:可以! Where 這個關係副詞所引導的關係子句或形容詞子句原本就是用來修飾先行詞為地點的名詞 (如 room, house, city, country 等等)。不過,若使用 where,就不可再用介系詞 (這裡是 in);若不用 where,則須有介詞,但介詞可以挪到 which 的前面,使其變成 The house in which Allen lives is the oldest in the community. (艾倫居住的房子是本社區最老舊的)。再者,在這句中,which 亦可用 that (關係代名詞) 來替代,但後面仍須保留介詞,且介詞不可挪到 that 的前面,因為 that 的前面不可有介詞;不過,由於 which 或 that 都是 (介詞的) 受詞,因此均可省略。

綜上所述,問題中的句子總共有五種寫法:

  • The house where Allen lives is the oldest in the community.
  • The house which Allen lives in is the oldest in the community.
  • The house in which Allen lives is the oldest in the community.
  • The house that Allen lives in is the oldest in the community.
  • The house Allen lives in is the oldest in the community.

茲再舉一例來加深大家對這種關係子句句型的印象 (在此使用另一地點介詞 at):

  • That is the restaurant where I will meet Cindy. (那是我要跟辛蒂會面的餐廳)
  • That is the restaurant which I will meet Cindy at.
  • That is the restaurant at which I will meet Cindy.
  • That is the restaurant that I will meet Cindy at.
  • That is the restaurant I will meet Cindy at.

所以,下面的句子都是錯的:

  • That is the restaurant which I will meet Cindy. (誤)
  • That is the restaurant that I will meet Cindy. (誤)
  • That is the restaurant I will meet Cindy. (誤)

至於另一關係副詞 when,則是用來修飾先行詞為時間的名詞 (如 time, day, year, century 等等)。它的用法與 where 雷同,但有兩個地方明顯不同,一是介詞不可以放在子句的末尾 (這與其他關係子句的介詞用法皆不同),二是 that 可視為關係副詞。例如:

  • I’ll never forget the day when I first met my wife. (我永遠不會忘記我和內人初次見面的那一天)
  • I’ll never forget the day on which I first met my wife.
  • I’ll never forget the day that I first met my wife.
  • I’ll never forget the day I first met my wife.

若使用 when,就不可再用介詞 (時刻用 at;日期用 on;月份、季節和年份用 in);若不用 when,則須有介詞,但介詞只能放在 which 的前面,若不用 which,則介詞要省略,不可放在句末。在 when 所引導的關係子句,我們可以用 that 來代替 when,因而這 that 被視為關係副詞。Which 在這兩種句型中皆是關代。

同樣地,茲再舉一例來加深大家對這種關係子句句型的印象 (在此使用另一時間介詞 in):

  • December is the month when the weather is usually the coldest. (十二月通常是天氣最冷的月份)
  • December is the month in which the weather is usually the coldest.
  • December is the month that the weather is usually the coldest.
  • December is the month the weather is usually the coldest.

所以,下面的句子都是錯的:

  • December is the month which the weather is usually the coldest in. (誤)
  • December is the month that the weather is usually the coldest in. (誤)
  • December is the month the weather is usually the coldest in. (誤)

Q:Andy was very tired because he had been jogging. 這句顯然是在表示因果關係,這種句型的使用時機為何呢?

A:在這句中,had been jogging 是過去完成進行式 (had been + V-ing),而 was 是過去簡單式。根據文法,在過去兩個先後發生的動作中,發生在前的動作要用過去完成式 (had + P.P.),而發生在後的動作用過去簡單式。換言之,過去完成式係用來表示發生在過去某個動作或某一特定時間之前的動作。例如:

  • Mr. Chen had studied English before he moved to San Francisco. (陳先生搬到舊金山之前已學了英文)
  • I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Pescadores. (在我去澎湖之前,我從未看過這麼美麗的海灘)
  • A: Had you ever visited the U.K. before your trip in 2011? (在 2011 年的英國行之前,你有去過英國嗎?)
    B: Yes, I had been to the U.K. once before. (有,我之前去過一次)

然而,若過去完成式的動作一直持續至過去某個動作或某一特定時間,那麼我們須使用過去完成進行式來表示。例如:

  • James had been waiting there for more than two hours when Mary finally arrived. (當瑪麗終於抵達時,詹姆斯已在那裡等了超過兩小時)
  • Carla had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business. (在那家公司歇業時,卡拉已在該公司工作了三年)
  • How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? (你等多久才坐上公車呢?)

由於過去完成式或過去完成進行式的動作都發生在過去簡單式的動作之前,兩者自然很容易就形成因果 (cause and effect) 關係;是故,過去完成式 + 過去簡單式或過去完成進行式 + 過去簡單式,乃成為表示過去發生的兩個有因果關係的動作或事件的完美組合,而問題中的句子 Andy was very tired because he had been jogging. (安迪很疲憊,因為他一直在慢跑) 是屬於過去完成進行式 + 過去簡單式的組合。例如:

  • I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. (我身無分文,因為我遺失了錢包)
  • Sam knew Bangkok so well because he had visited the city several times. (山姆對曼谷瞭若指掌,因為他已去過曼谷好幾趟)
  • We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance. (我們沒有飯店房間可住,因為我們事先沒有預訂)
  • Barry failed the final test because he had not been attending class. (貝瑞期末考不及格,因為他一直沒來上課)
  • Kevin was very tired because he had been washing cars. (凱文非常疲憊,因為他一直在洗車)
  • Amy gained weight because she had been overeating. (艾美體重增加了,因為她一直暴飲暴食)

值得一提的是,在過去完成進行式 + 過去簡單式的情況中,過去完成進行式的動作在過去簡單式的動作或狀態生時可能還在持續中,但也可能已告結束。

事實上,現在完成進行式 (has/have been + V-ing) + 現在簡單式亦是一種表示因果關係的完美句型,它是用來表示最近的動作產生現在的結果或對現在造成的影響。但必須注意是,現在完成式 (has/have + P.P.) 並沒有這樣的用法。例如:

  • My hands are so dirty because I have been working in the garden. (我的雙手很髒,因為我一直在花園工作)
  • Kevin is very tired because he has been jogging/washing cars. (凱文非常疲憊,因為他一直在慢跑 / 洗車)
  • The ground is soaking wet because it has been raining all night. (地面濕透了,因為整晚都在下雨)

同樣地,在現在完成進行式 + 現在簡單式的情況中,現在完成進行式的動作在現在簡單式的動作或狀態發生時可能還在持續中,但也可能已告結束。以 The ground is soaking wet because it has been raining all night. 這句為例,在講這句話的時候,雨可能已經停了,但整晚下雨對現在所產生的結果或造成的影響 (地面濕透了) 是顯而易見的。

Q:在 If John were a good student, he would have studied for the exam yesterday. 這條件句中,if 子句和結果子句分別為與現在和過去事實相反,這樣對嗎?

A:這當然對! 在問題的條件句中,If John were a good student (如果約翰是個好學生) 是個與現在事實相反的 if 子句,而 he would have studied for the exam yesterday (他昨天就會為考試用功讀書) 則是個與過去事實相反的結果子句。事實上,這種過去與現在時間混合的條件句頗為常見。

一般而言,if 子句和結果子句所表示的時間都是一致的,即兩個子句都是與現在或過去事實相反。例如:

與現在事實相反的條件句:

  • If I were you, I would marry Rachel. (如果我是你,我會跟瑞秋結婚)
  • If I had enough money, I would buy a house. (如果我有足夠的錢,我會買一間房子)
  • If I had enough money, I could buy a house. (如果我有足夠的錢,我可能買一間房子)
    - 在上面的例句中,would 是表示想要或可預測的結果,而 could 表示一個可能的結果。

與過去事實相反的條件句:

  • If Bill had studied, he would have passed the exam. (如果比爾用功讀書,他已經通過考試)
  • If I had had enough money, I would have bought a house. (如果我有足夠的錢,我會買一間房子)
  • If I had had enough money, I could have bought a house. (如果我有足夠的錢,我可能買一間房子)
    - 同樣地,在上面的例句中,would 是表示想要或可預測的結果,而 could 表示一個可能的結果。

然而,如上述,過去與現在時間混合的條件句亦所在多有。例如:

  • If Mary had eaten dinner, she wouldn’t be hungry now. (如果瑪麗有吃晚餐,她現在就不會餓)
  • If I were you, I would have told her the truth. (如果我是你,我會對她說實話)

Q:”What happened?” 和 “What did happen?” 有何不同呢?

A:英文只有 What happened? 的說法或寫法,因為 What did happen? 的文法錯誤。請看下面的例句和解說:

  • Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning rod. (富蘭克林發明避雷針)

上句若要改成問句,會有兩種情況。一是問主詞,另一是問受詞。若是問主詞,則句子變成:

  • Who invented the lightning rod? (誰發明避雷針?)

答案是 Benjamin Franklin - 當動詞 invented 的主詞。這種問句叫做「主詞問句」(subject questions)。

若是問受詞,則句子變成:

  • What did Benjamin Franklin invent? (富蘭克林發明了什麼?)

答案是 the lightning rod - 當動詞 invented 的受詞。這種問句叫做「受詞問句」(object questions)。

所以,當問句是在問主詞時,我們係使用正確時態的動詞,無需助動詞,即 Who invented the lightning rod?;當問句是在問受詞時,我們要使用助動詞,而原來的主動詞則變成原形動詞,即 What did Benjamin Franklin invent?。

現在來看問題中的問句:

  • What happened?
  • What did happen?

What 這個疑問詞是在問 happen 這個動詞的主詞還是受詞呢? 顯然地,這是主詞問句,是在問主詞。它的原句可能是:

  • Something happened to me.
  • Nothing happened to them.

根據上述,主詞問句係使用正確時態的動詞,無須藉助於助動詞 do/does/did,所以 What did happen? 不合文法。

不過,若是 yes/no 問句,那就需要助動詞了。所以,問主詞的 yes/no 問句可以說成或寫成:

  • Did anything happen? (發生了什麼事嗎?)
  • Did it happen to you? (你發生了那件事嗎?)
  • Has anything happened yet? (已經有什麼事發生了嗎?)

但不可能有 What did happen? 這樣的說法或寫法。

Q:I don’t know what is the matter. 和 I don’t know what the matter is. 那一句正確呢?

A:這兩句都對,但意思不同。首先來看 I don’t know what is the matter.,這句是由主要子句 I don’t know 和附屬子句 (名詞子句) what is the matter 所構成,而名詞子句在此當 know 的受詞。在文法中,這個名詞子句又叫做間接問句,它是從直接問句 What is the matter? (怎麼啦?) 而來的,其中 matter 意為「問題;麻煩;困境」。

相信一定有不少人會質疑說,間接問句的詞序不是跟陳述句的詞序一樣嗎,為何還用直接問句的詞序呢? 這正是本問題的重點所在! 大家都知道,在含有疑問詞的直接問句中,其詞序為「疑問詞 + 助動詞 (若為 BE 動詞,則主詞後面就沒有動詞)」+ 主詞 + 動詞 + 其他元素?」。當一個直接問句併入另一個句子 (主要子句) 時,該直接問句就變成間接問句,而後者的詞序為「疑問詞 + 主詞 + (助動詞) + 動詞/BE 動詞 + 其他元素」。例如:

  1. Who is she? (她是誰?) (直接問句)
    I don’t know who she is. (我不知道她是誰) (間接問句)
  2. What do you want? (你想要什麼?) (直接問句)
    Please tell me what you want. (請告訴我,你想要什麼) (間接問句)
  3. Who wants the document? (誰要這份文件?) (直接問句)
    Do you know who wants the document? (你知道誰要這份文件嗎?) (間接問句)

在第 3 句中,直接問句 Who wants the document? 的主詞是 who,而在 Do you know who wants the document? 中,間接問句的主詞還是 who,原本的主動詞位置並沒有改變;換言之,當疑問詞在直接問句中就是主詞時,在間接問句中的詞序維持不變。What is the matter? 的情況就是這樣,what 是這直接問句的主詞,所以變成間接問句後詞序不變。若疑問詞在直接問句中並非主詞,如第 1 句 (主詞為 he) 和第 2 句 (主詞為 you),那麼在間接問句中,主詞與動詞的詞序必須恢復為陳述句的詞序。

現在來看 I don’t know what the matter is.。為何這句也對呢? 因為這句中的 matter 意為「物質」(substance),不是「問題;麻煩;困境」;它是直接問句 What is the matter? 的主詞,在間接問句中須調整詞序,位在 is 的前面。所以 I don’t know what the matter is. 的意思是「我不知道這物質是什麼」。