Q:在表達「目的」的觀念時,我經常被 for 和 to 搞得一頭霧水,不知何時該用 for,又何時該用 to?

A:1. 當我們要表達動作的目的 (purpose) 時,可以使用 「for + 名詞」或「to + 不定詞」來表示。例如:

  • I’m going to New York next week for an interview. I hope to work for the UN. (下週我要到紐約接受面試。我希望為聯合國工作)
  • I’ve come to Taipei to attend a seminar and to meet some old friends of mine. (我來台北參加座談會並會見一些老朋友)

2. 當我們要表達東西或物品的用途 (purpose) 時,要使用 「for + V-ing」來表示。例如:

  • What are these two knives used for? (這兩把刀做什麼用?)
    This one is for cutting bread and that one is just for slicing meat. (這把是用來切麵包,而那把只用來切肉片)

3. What… for? 的問句既可表示動作的目的亦可表示東西的用途。例如:

  • What did you do that for? (為什麼你要那樣做 — 目的為何?)
    = Why did you do that? (這裡 What… for? 等於 Why…?)
  • What are these two buttons for? (這兩個按鈕做什麼用 — 用途為何?)
    The blue one is for opening the door and the green one is for closing the door. (藍色按鈕用來開門,而綠色按鈕用來關門)

Drunk, drunken (adjs.)

這兩個形容詞都意為「(酒) 醉的」,但 drunk 通常用在動詞之後,其型態為 BE 動詞、get 等連綴動詞 + drunk (on + 所喝的酒),而 drunken 通常用在名詞之前,如 He got drunk on only two glasses of wine. (他才喝了兩杯葡萄酒就醉了);He got dead drunk on only two cans of beer. (他才喝了兩罐啤酒就爛醉如泥);There was a drunken man lying on the ground. (地上躺了一名醉漢)。drunk 經常與其他字連用來構成固定搭配,如 blind/dead/roaring drunk, drunk as a skunk/lord,這幾個片語均意為「酩酊大醉,爛醉如泥」(= very drunk),如 He is blind/dead drunk./He is drunk as a skunk. (他喝得酩酊大醉)。drunk 還可當名詞用,意為「酒鬼,酗酒者;醉漢」,為一貶抑詞。

Drunk 可用於比喻,但 drunken 則不行。drunk 的比喻意思為「陶醉的;興奮的;暈頭轉向的」,其後接介系詞 with,如 John is drunk with power. (約翰醉心於權力);He was drunk with success. (他陶醉於成功中);She felt drunk with rage. (她氣得暈頭轉向)。不過,drunken 除了「(酒) 醉的」意思外,還意為「酒醉引起的」,如 My uncle had a drunken sleep. (我叔叔喝醉後呼呼大睡);He collapsed in a drunken stupor. (他醉得不省人事而倒在地上);a drunken brawl/rage (酒後鬧事/狂怒)。在英國,酒醉鬧事、擾亂治安是一種犯罪行為,但這一法律用語並非 drunken brawl,而是 drunk and disorderly,如 The police charged him with being drunk and disorderly. (警方指控他酒醉鬧事、擾亂治安)。

然而,由於 drunk 暗指一時或暫時的酒醉,而 drunken 暗指習慣性的酗酒,因此當需要強調這項差別時,這兩個形容詞慣常的用法規則可以反其道而行,亦即 drunk 用於名詞之前,而 drunken 用於動詞之後,這也就是「酒後駕車」的英文可以是drunk driving 或 drunken driving 的原因;在英國,「酒後駕車」還可說成或寫成 drink-driving。drunken 用於動詞之後的情況其實並不多見,如 He was usually drunken and foul-mouthed. (他經常酗酒又爆粗口)。不過,在法律上,酒後駕車的正式用語並非drunk/drunken driving,而是 DWI (driving while intoxicated) — intoxicated 意為「(酒) 醉的;陶醉的」,如 He was arrested for/charged with DWI. (他因酒後駕車被捕/他被控酒後駕車)。除了 DWI之外,還有另一個表示「酒後駕車」的用語亦不時被使用,那就是 DUI (driving under the influence)。

Converse, inverse, obverse, reverse (adjs., nn.)

這四個字的 -verse 部分意為「轉動」(to turn),而字首則表示轉動的方向或本質。

Converse 當形容詞用時意為「(觀點、信仰或陳述等) 相反的」,如 I hold the converse opinion. (我持相反的意見)。converse 當名詞用時意為「相反的事物、相反的說法、相反的意思;反面的言詞或陳述」,其前必須加上定冠詞 the,而其後經常接 of + 受詞,如 “Buyer” is the converse of “seller.” (Buyer 是 seller 的相反詞);”It’s windy but not wet” is the converse of “It’s wet but not windy.” (It’s windy but not wet 是 It’s wet but not windy 的反面說法);You say that your mother dislikes you but in fact the converse is true – you dislike your mother. (你說你母親不喜歡你,但其實情形恰好相反 — 是你討厭你母親)。converse 的副詞 conversely 意為「另一方面;從另一方面來看」(on the other hand),如 This newspaper story could damage their reputation; conversely, it will give them a lot of free publicity. (報紙上的這篇報導可能損害他們的名譽,不過從另一方面來看,它將為他們做大量免費的宣傳)。事實上,converse 還可當動詞用,就是 conversation (會話,談話) 的動詞,意為「談話,交談」,它的重音在第二音節;當名詞用的 converse,重音在第一音節,而當形容詞用的 converse,重音可在第一或第二音節。

Inverse當形容詞用時意為「(次序、位置、數量或大小等) 相反的;顛倒的;逆向的」,經常用在 in reverse proportion/relation/relationship (to) –「(與…) 成反比」– 這類片語中,如 The human population was growing in inverse proportion/relation to that of the lions and elephants. (人口成長與獅子和大象的數量成長成反比);Subtraction is the inverse operation of addition. (減法是與加法相反的運算)。inverse 當名詞用時意為「相反的事物;顛倒的事物;(數學的) 倒數」,亦總是以 the inverse (of) 的型態出現,如 The inverse of 4 is 1/4. (4 的倒數是 1/4)。就使用頻率而言,當形容詞用的 inverse 比當名詞用的 inverse 要來得常用。inverse 無論是當形容詞或名詞用,重音都是在第二音節。

Obverse是個正式字,是這四個字當中最不常見的,當形容詞用時意為「正面的;對應的」,如 The obverse side of a coin or medal has the head or design on it. (硬幣或獎章的正面有人頭或圖案)。obverse 當名詞用時意為「(硬幣、獎章及其他扁平物體的) 正面;對立面;對應的事物,相對物 (counterpart)」,也都是以 the obverse (of) 的型態出現,如 The obverse of love is hate. (愛的反面是恨);Defeat is the obverse of victory. (失敗是勝利的反面);Nobody liked his proposition but the obverse was equally unattractive. (誰也不喜歡他的論點,但相對的論點也同樣不討喜)。當名詞用的 obverse,重音在第一音節,而當形容詞用的 obverse,重音在第二音節。

Reverse是這四個字當中最常用和最常見的,當形容詞用時意為「(位置、方向等) 相反的,反向的,顛倒的;反面的,背面的」,僅用於名詞之前,如 This time it came in the reverse direction. (這一次它是從相反的方向來的);She then looked at the reverse side of the coin. (接著她看了看錢幣的反面);in reverse order (次序顛倒);Now arrange the numbers in reverse order. (現在倒過來排列這些數字)。reverse 當名詞用時意為「相反;(硬幣、獎章及其他扁平物體的) 反面,背面;倒車檔」,除「倒車檔」之外,亦同樣皆以 the reverse (of) 的型態出現,如 They did the reverse of what the teacher told them to do. (他們做的與老師的要求相反);The truth is just the reverse. (真實的情況恰好相反);Quite the reverse is true. (真實的情況恰好相反);There’s a picture of an eagle on the reverse of the coin. (硬幣的背面是隻老鷹的圖案);Drive the car in reverse (= reverse gear) until you get out of the alley. (倒車直到你開出這條巷子)。就硬幣等的正反面而言,obverse 和 reverse 是相反詞;硬幣的正反面亦分別叫做 head 和 tail。

事實上,reverse 還可當動詞用,而且是個相當常用的字,意為「顛倒,翻轉,使倒轉;轉變,改變;倒車;推翻,撤銷 (法庭判決)」,如 Their positions are now reversed. (他們的地位現在顛倒過來了);His coat can be reversed when it begins to rain. (他的外衣在下雨時能翻過來穿);The stock market reversed course and closed with a modest gain. (股市止跌回升,以小幅上漲作收);The new government set about reversing previous policies. (新政府開始改變以前的政策);He reversed his car into the garage. (他倒車入庫);The court reversed its decision. (法庭撤銷了原來的判決)。reverse 無論是當形容詞、名詞或動詞用,重音都是在第二音節。

Discrepancy, disparity (nn.)

這兩個名詞都有「差異」的意思,但它們差異的程度卻有很大的不同。discrepancy 意為「差異,不同,不一致;不一致或不相符之處」(difference, lack of similarity or agreement, inconsistency),可當可數或不可數名詞用,後面通常接介系詞 between 或 in,如 There is some discrepancy between their two descriptions. (他們兩人的描述有些出入);There was a discrepancy in the two reports of the accident. (關於那起事故的兩份報導有矛盾之處);There were some discrepancies in the statement he gave to the police. (他給警方的陳述有些地方不一致)。顯然地,discrepancy 所指的差異在程度上似乎不大。

Disparity 意為「差異,不同,不等,不一致;懸殊」,通常是指重大的差異,不相等,顯著的不同或根本不同 (important difference, inequality, something incongruous, markedly distinct, or fundamentally different),同樣可當可數或不可數名詞用,而後面亦通常接介系詞 between 或 in,如 The disparity between their proposals made compromise unlikely. (他們的提案差很大,使得尋求折衷變得不可能);There is still a disparity in salaries among people doing the same job. (同工不同酬的情況仍然存在);There is (a) considerable disparity in the rates of pay for men and women. (男女薪資的比率相差懸殊)。必須注意的是,disparity 前面若有修飾語,則該修飾語必須是能夠凸顯「差很大」、「懸殊」的字眼,如 considerable, great, significant 或 wide 等形容詞。

Instructional, instructive (adjs.)

Instructional 意為「教學的;教學用的;教育的」,如 She used some instructional materials in class. (她在課堂上使用了一些教材);He had a desk full of instructional videos. (他的書桌擺滿了教學錄影帶);instructional methods/books (教學法/教學用書)。

Instructive 意為「有益的;增長知識的;有教育意義的;有啟發性的」,不可用來指人,如 The lecture was instructive and interesting. (這項演講既有益又有趣);This is an instructive book. (這是一本有教育意義的書);A trip around the world is an instructive experience. (環球旅行是一種增長見識的經歷)。

從上述可知,這兩個形容詞的意思並不相同,但它們有時可能接相同的名詞,如上述的 an instructional book 和 an instructive book。此外,它們可能出現在同一個句子中,此時區分它們之間意思的不同會變得更加重要,如 Some instructional manuals are worthless, but others can be most instructive. (有些操作手冊毫無用處,但其他手冊可能很有幫助);在這句中,instructional manual 通常寫成 instruction manual,意為「操作手冊;使用說明書」。

Q:Such was his thirst that he drank up the whole bottle of water. 這句的意義為何?

A:這句意為「他很渴,把整瓶水都喝光了」,是 His thirst was such that he drank up the whole bottle of water. 的倒裝句,屬於用來表示前因後果的 “such… that”、”so… that” (如此…以致於) 的句型應用。注意:so 後面要接形容詞或副詞 (so 為副詞),而 such 後面要接名詞或名詞片語 (such 為限定詞) 或不接名詞 (such 為代名詞)。我們可用 so… that 來加以改寫為 He was so thirsty that he drank up the whole bottle of water.。

同樣地,我們也可將 so 移到句首來強調表示事件之原因的形容詞,此時句子亦同樣要倒裝:So thirsty was he that he drank up the whole bottle of water.。再舉一例來加深讀者對這種句型的印象:

  • He was so surprised that he remained speechless for a few minutes. (他驚訝得好幾分鐘說不出話來) (正常句)
    = So surprised was he that he remained speechless for a few minutes. (倒裝句)
    = His surprise was such that he remained speechless for a few minutes. (正常句)
    = Such was his surprise that he remained speechless for a few minutes. (倒裝句)

Discreet, discrete (adjs.)

這兩個形容詞有時會被搞混。discreet 意為「(言行舉止) 謹慎的,慎重的,考慮周到的」(prudent, judicious, having good judgment),如 You can confide in him; he is very discreet. (你可以信賴他;他行事非常謹慎);It wasn’t very discreet of you to ring me up at the office. (你在辦公室打電話給我有點考慮欠週)。這個字的反義詞為 indiscreet。

Discrete 意為「分離的,個別的;有別的;不連續的」(separate, distinct, noncontinuous),如 These are discrete elements that share no basic characteristics. (這些是個別的元素,它們的基本特性完全不同);The picture consisted of a lot of discrete spots of color. (這幅畫由許多互不相連的色點所組成)。

這兩個同音異形異義字 (homophones) 雖源自同一拉丁字,但意思卻截然不同。不少人因此發生拼字錯誤或意思混淆的情況,甚至現今無論在印刷品、信件或其他非正式寫作中仍不時可見這樣的錯誤或意思上的誤解。尤有甚者,許多人將 discretion 誤以為是 discrete 的名詞。事實上,discrete 的名詞是 discreteness,而 discretion 是 discreet 的名詞,意為「謹慎,慎重;自己決定,自行裁決」– 這名詞通常用在 at one’s discretion (由某人自行決定) 此一常見的片語中,如 The hours of meetings will be at the chairperson’s discretion. (開會的時間將由主席自行決定)。

Tasteful, tasteless, tasty, distasteful (adjs.)

Tasteful 和 tasty 分別衍生自名詞 taste 不同的意思,前者的意思與「品味;鑑賞力」有關,而後者的意思與「味道;滋味」有關。因此,這兩個形容詞應被視為截然不同的兩個字。tasteful 意為「有品味的;有鑑賞力的,有審美力的;雅緻的,高雅的,優美的」,如 Her comments were very tasteful. (她的評論很有品味);The study had tasteful furnishings. (書房的室內陳設高雅優美);tasteful decoration (雅致的裝飾)。

Tasty 意為「(食物) 味美的;可口的;好吃的」(palatable),但通常不用來形容甜食,如 This really was a tasty meal. (這真是美味的一餐);She served a wonderfully tasty lunch. (她供應了非常美味可口的午餐);a few tasty snack (一些可口的小吃)。此外,tasty 在英國俚語中還意為「迷人的;有性吸引力的 (男性形容女性的用語,通常被視為對女性的冒犯)」,如 John’s new girlfriend is very tasty. (約翰的新女友很迷人);His sister’s rather tasty. (他的妹妹相當有性吸引力,讓人想入非非)。

Tasteless 既是 tasteful 也是 tasty 的反義詞;換言之,tasteless 兼具比喻和字面的意思。這個形容詞的比喻意思為「(衣服、家具或裝飾等) 沒品味的,格調低的,俗氣的;(言談或舉止) 不雅的,不得體的」,如 His room is full of tasteless ornaments. (他的房間盡是沒有品味的裝飾品);She thought his comments rude and tasteless. (她認為他的評論粗魯不雅);a tasteless remark/joke (不雅的話/笑話)。tasteless 的字面意思為「沒有味道的;淡而無味的」(flavorless, insipid),如 The student canteen serves cold, tasteless pizzas. (學生餐廳供應淡而無味的冷披薩);a tasteless piece of chicken (一塊淡而無味的雞肉);tasteless vegetables/soup (沒有味道的蔬菜/湯)。

至於 distasteful,雖然它也只有比喻的意思且在拼字上看似在 tasteful 的前面加上 dis-,但它可不是 tasteful 的反義詞! distasteful 意為「令人反感的;使人不愉快的;討厭的」(unpleasant, disagreeable),顯然它與 tasteful 是不相關的兩個字,如 Many people have complained that they found the pictures distasteful. (許多人抱怨這些圖片令人反感);a rather distasteful duty (相當令人討厭的職責);a distasteful joke (令人倒胃口的笑話)。

Proposal (n.), proposition (n., v.)

Proposal 和 proposition 只有在「建議;提議;提案」的意思上是同義詞,可以互換,如 That’s an interesting proposal/proposition. (那是一項有趣的建議);the government’s latest proposal/proposition (政府最新的提案)。但有關商業和生意上的建議和提議,一般都使用 proposition 而不用 proposal,如 We made him a proposition: He would join us, and we would support his company. (我們向他建議:他和我們聯合,我們就支持他的公司);I have a business proposition to put to you. (我有個商業建議要對你說)。在最後一句中,business proposition 可視為固定搭配,不能寫成 business proposal。同樣地,(an) insurance proposal 也是固定用語,意為「(保險) 投保」,如 an insurance proposal form (保險投保書),不能寫成 insurance proposition。

在其他特定意思上,這兩個字截然不同,千萬別搞混。除「建議;提議;提案」的意思外,proposal 也意為「(建議等的) 提出」,如 Proposal is easier than performance. (建議容易實行難);the proposal of new regulations (新條例的提出)。再者,proposal 還意為「求婚」,如 She accepted his proposal at once. (她立刻就接受了他的求婚);She has had a proposal. (已經有人向她求婚了)。proposal 的動詞為 propose。

Proposition 有數個特有的意思:1.「主張;觀點;論點;看法;見解」,其後通常接 that 所引導的名詞子句作同位語 (注意:that 不能省略),如 The students discussed the proposition that man is basically good. (學生們討論了「人性本善」這個論點);the proposition that all religions are equally valid (認為所有宗教都同樣合法主張)。2.「(需要對付或必須處理的) 人;事情;問題」,如 We could build a tunnel instead of a bridge, but that’s a much more difficult proposition. (我們可以建隧道而不建橋樑,但那是個困難得多的問題);The new manager is a formidable proposition. (新任經理是個難纏的傢伙),但有些人反對 proposition 這項口語或非正式用法的意思,可能是因為在這些句子中,proposition 所構成的名詞片語其實只要使用形容詞就可以了,如上面兩句可以分別更簡潔地改為 We could build a tunnel instead of a bridge, but that’s much more difficult. 和 The new manager is formidable.。3.「(男女間的) 求歡」,如 He made me a proposition. (他向我求歡)。proposition 的第 4 和第 5 個意思分別為「法律議案;法律修正案」及「(數學和邏輯的) 命題」。

Proposition 還可當及物動詞用,意為「(尤指冒犯地) 向…提出嘿咻要求;向…求歡」,如 Dad said he was propositioned by a call girl at the ritzy hotel. (父親說他在那家豪華飯店時曾有應召女郎找上他);He propositioned every girl in the bar, but none were interested. (他對酒吧裡的每位女孩提出嘿咻要求,但沒有人理睬他)。值得注意的是,當動詞用的 proposition 比當名詞用、意為「求歡」的 proposition 要來得常用許多,所以「他向他的秘書求歡」一般都寫成 He propositioned his secretary. 而甚少寫成 He made his secretary a proposition。此外,「求歡」和「求婚」雖僅有一字之差,但意思相差豈可以道里計,因此千萬別將 proposition 和 propose/proposal 搞錯了。

Complement, supplement (vv., nn.)

這兩個字都可以做動詞和名詞用。complement 的動詞意思為「補充,補足;使 (某物) 完整或完備」,名詞意思為「補充,補足物;使完整或完備之物;足額,全數;(文法上的) 補語;(數學上的) 餘角」。supplement 的動詞意思為「補充,增補,追加」,名詞意思為「補充,增補,追加;(書籍的) 補遺,勘誤表;(報紙、雜誌的) 增刊」。

雖然它們的意思有頗為明顯的不同,但由於在字典上都有「補充」的意思,有些人在沒有深入探究其用法和意思之差異的情況下,當考試遇上答案中同時出現這兩個字時,往往就被搞混而答錯了,誠屬可惜。complement 是指原先不足,而現在將它補足,使其完備,達到足額或全數:The arrival of 11 new nurses gave the hospital its full complement of 200. (11名新護士的到職使這家醫院的護士人數達到滿額的 200人)。而 supplement 則是指原先已足夠或足額,現在又增補或多出來一些數量:Her fees for private tuition supplemented her teacher’s salary. (她除了老師的薪水外還有家教費的收入)。這樣的說明應該可以讓大家從今以後正確無誤地使用這兩個字了吧!