Proportional, proportionable, proportionate (adjs.)

這三個形容詞幾乎是同義詞,意為「(大小、數量或程度) 均衡的,相稱的;(大小或數量) 與…成比例的,按比例的」,通常與介系詞 to 連用,如 The sentence is not proportional to the crime. (量刑與罪行不相稱);The payment he will have to make will be proportional to the damage he has done. (他需要付的錢是根據他所造成的損失大小而定);Wages will rise at a rate proportionate to the amount of work you do. (工資將與你所做的工作量成比例增加);You will have to work an extra three days, but there will be a proportionable increase in your pay. (你必須多工作三天,但薪資也會按比例增加)。

在上面的例句中,這三個字都可以互換。然而,在 proportional representation 此一片語中,proportional 不能用 proportionate 或 proportionable 來替換。proportional representation 意為「(議會選舉中的) 比例代表制」(各政黨根據其得票數的比例在議會中分配席次的選舉制度)。

在這三個形容詞當中,proportional 最常見,而 proportionate 也頗為常用,但 proportionable 卻相當罕見,顯然已逐漸遭淘汰。這三個字的反義詞都是在前面加上字首 dis-,即 disproportional, disproportionable, disproportionate。

Q:有人說,當 cut, hit 等動詞的受詞為身體部位時,該身體部位的前面不能用代名詞所有格 (如 my, her, your),而必須用定冠詞 (the),如 He hit me in the (不是 my) eye.,He punched the woman on the (不是 her) chest.;但也有人說,He cut his chin. 是正確的,而 He cut the chin. 是錯誤的。我要問的問題有二:1. 從例句來看,身體部位前的介系詞有時用 in,有時用 on,這是否意謂不同的部位要使用不同的介系詞,如何判斷? 2. 若 He cut the chin. 不對,這不是違背前述的規則了嗎?

A:問題中所述的文法觀念,可用下面的句型來解說:

「cut, hit, pat, punch, strike 等動詞 + someone (身體部位的所有人) + in/on + the + 身體部位」。

從這個句型可以看出,cut 等動詞後面要接人當受詞,然後再接由 in 或 on 所構成的介系詞片語。所以,當句子不是以這種型態出現時,身體部位前面要使用所有格,而非定冠詞。這就是 He cut his chin. 正確,而 He cut the chin. 錯誤的原因。一般而言,這些介系詞片語通常使用定冠詞,尤其是在被動結構以及當身體部位的所有人是做為動詞的受詞而非主詞時。所以,若 He cut the chin. 改為 He cut himself on the chin. 就正確了。試比較下面兩句:

  • He cut himself on his chin. (誤) — 這句的意思應是說「他刮鬍鬚時割到了下巴」。
  • He cut himself on the chin. (正)
    = He cut his chin.

根據上述規則,再舉兩例來證明:

  • He was cut on his chin. (誤)
  • He was cut on the chin. (正)
  • He hit me on my chin. (誤)
  • He hit me on the chin. (正)

至於身體部位前面的介系詞要使用 in 還是 on 的問題,在此提供一個粗略的規則給大家做為判斷之用。一般而言,堅硬、突出的部位通常使用 on,如 on the back/head/should/nose,而柔軟、凹陷的部位則使用 in,如 in the eye/face/chest/stomach。在舉例說明之前,有一點必須指出,那就是 chest 一般都用 in the chest,而非問題中的 on the chest:

  • If you give me $50, you can kick me in the stomach. (如果你給我50元,你就可以踢我的肚子)
  • Last night a guy grabbed a bat and beat me in the face. (昨晚有個傢伙手持球棒毆打我的臉)
  • He punched the man on the nose. (他揮拳重擊那名男子的鼻樑)
  • The woman walked up to him and slapped him in the face twice. (那位婦女走上前去打了他兩記耳光)
    = The woman walked up to him and slapped his face twice.
  • You shouldn’t criticize your husband so much. Why don’t you pat him on the back occasionally? (你不該老是責備你先生,何不偶爾也誇獎他一下呢?) — 句中的 “pat someone on the back” 是個成語,意為「讚揚,誇獎」。

Precipitate, precipitous (adjs.), precipitately, precipitously (advs.)

Precipitate 意為「輕率的;魯莽的;倉促的;突然的」(rash, abrupt, hasty, sudden),如 The President made a rather precipitate departure. (總統相當倉促地離開了);They acted with precipitate haste. (他們魯莽倉促地採取行動);precipitate action (魯莽/輕率的舉動)。precipitous 意為「險峻的,陡峭的;急劇的」(steep),可表示字面和比喻的意思,如 A precipitous path led down the cliff. (懸崖往下有一條陡峭的小路);She did not dare to bike down the precipitous slope. (她不敢騎著腳踏車衝下陡峭的斜坡);a precipitous drop in commodity prices (商品價格急劇滑落);a precipitous decline in population (人口驟降)。

Precipitous 除上述意思外也意為「輕率的;魯莽的;倉促的;突然的」;換言之,就此意思而言,precipitate 和 precipitous 是同義詞,如 Their precipitous entry into the foreign markets ended in disaster. (他們之輕率進入外國市場以徹底失敗收場)。這兩個形容詞的副詞 precipitately 和 precipitously 同樣具有上述不同和重疊的意思。然而,precipitous 和 precipitously 之身兼雙義有時會造成意思的模稜兩可,如 a precipitous drop in interest rates 是「利率突然下降」還是「利率急劇下降」或兩者兼而有之呢?

雖然大多數字典都已接受並收錄 precipitous 和 precipitously 的「輕率的(地);魯莽的(地);倉促的(地);突然的(地)」意思,但許多人仍反對這項用法,原因當然是為了使 precipitate 和 precipitous以及 precipitately 和 precipitously 的意思有所區別。儘管 precipitous 和 precipitously 的這項延伸意思已被諸多聲譽卓著的作家不次應用在他們的作品中,但如果有人引用您自己的寫作並註解為「原文錯誤 (原文如此)」(sic) 時,那也不足為奇。所以,在使用 precipitous 和 precipitously 來表達這項意思時,應在上下文多下點功夫以防意思模稜兩可。

Precipitate 也可當名詞和動詞用,前者意為「(化學中的) 沈澱物」,後者意為「使 (尤指壞事) 突然發生,加快促成;猛摔,猛拋;使突然陷入 (某種狀態 — 通常與介系詞 into 連用);使沈澱」,如 Such headaches can be precipitated by food as well as stress. (這類頭痛會因為食物和壓力而猝發);Fears about the solvency of the banks precipitated the great economic crash. (對銀行償付能力的擔憂更加速了經濟的崩潰);The car overturned and precipitated us into the ditch. (車子翻了,我們被摔進了溝裡);The company was precipitated into ruin when the exchange rate dropped. (匯率下降時,公司一下子破產倒閉了);The border incident precipitated the two countries into war. (邊界事件把兩國突然推向戰爭)。

Q: He had to call in sick to work …. 這句真令人困惑,為什麼他請病假去工作呢? 這不是矛盾嗎?

A:我們平常所說的「請病假」,英文最常用的講法是 call in sick 或 take a sick leave。call in sick 通常是指上班族請病假不上班,因此有些人亦說成 call in sick to work,來明確指出這是上班族的「請病假」,俾與學生的「請病假」有所區別。

然而,由於 call in sick 後面可以接一個不定詞片語來表示「請病假去做某事」(假病假之名,行做其他事情之實) 的意思,如 He called in sick (for one day) to go on a date with his new girlfriend. (他請 (一天) 病假去跟他的新女友約會),有些人往往把 call in sick to work 中的 to work 誤解為不定詞。非也! 這裡的 to 是介系詞,而 work 是名詞 — 這可從學生請病假可以說成 call in sick to school 中得到證明。它們的意思是說「向工作場所請病假」、「向學校請病假」。所以上面的例句亦可寫成 He called in sick to work (for one day) to go on a date with his new girlfriend.。

既然談到請假,如果不提一些與請假有關的用語,似乎有點說不過去。一般而言,「請 (一天) 假沒去上班」就是 take a day off,「請兩天假沒去上班」就是 take two days off,依此類推。同樣地,為了區別上班族與學生的請假,我們可以更明確地說 take a day off from work/school。若是只請半天假的話就說成 take the morning/afternoon off。「早退」是 leave early、「遲到」是 come in late。不過,美語中並無細分「事假」和「喪假」,只要是私人因素請假都可以說成 He took a day (or the whole day) off to take care of some personal business/affairs. (他請了一天假去處理私事)。

值得一提的是,美語中有個俚語,意思與 call in sick 完全一樣,那就是 bang in 或 bang in sick (to work),如 I banged in sick to work for two days to finish my book. (我請了兩天病假來完成我的書);Many of our company’s employees banged in today. (本公司許多員工今天請病假)。

Distrust, mistrust (vv., nn.)

Distrust 和 mistrust 當 (及物) 動詞用時均意為「不信任,不相信,懷疑」,通常可以互換,如 Somehow I distrust/mistrust the whole business. (不知怎麼地,我就是不相信這整件事) ;He distrusts/mistrusts banks, so he keeps his money at home. (他認為銀行靠不住,所以把錢存在家裡)。

然而,distrust 比 mistrust 要來得常用,且含有「猜忌;猜疑」(suspicion) 的意思,所以當某人曾經有欺騙或其他負面行為或某事物曾經造成危害或產生不良影響,或者當事人認為某人或某事物可能會做出上述行為或發生上述情況,因而對該等人事物產生不信任感或懷疑時,一般都使用 distrust 而不用 mistrust,如 I have known him to be deceitful in the past and I have come to distrust everything he says. (我知道他過去愛騙人,所以我對他所說的事情一概不信);Most people distrust politicians. (大多數人都不信任政客);He distrusts her because he thinks she’ll cheat him. (他不信任她,因為他認為她會騙他)。

Mistrust 是指比較不確定或不是很肯定的「不信任」或指對自己相關事物的「懷疑」,如 There was something about her manner that made me uneasy and I found myself beginning to mistrust her. (某件跟她態度有關的事情令我不安,結果我發現自己開始不信任她);She told herself she had no reason to mistrust him. (她告訴自己沒有理由不信任他);Why do you mistrust him so much? He seems honest enough to me. (你為何如此不信任他呢? 我覺得他似乎很老實);I mistrust my own judgment when it comes to my appointment of Mike as new English teacher. (談到我聘任麥可為新的英文老師一事,我懷疑自己的判斷力)。

Distrust 和 mistrust 亦皆可當 (不可數) 名詞用,意思也同樣為「不信任,不相信,懷疑」,其後經常與介系詞 of 連用,如 The child looked at the stranger with distrust. (那孩子用懷疑的目光望著陌生人);I have a distrust of airplanes. (我對飛機信不過);Mistrust between the two countries is intense. (兩國間彼此非常不信任);He has a deep/strong mistrust of anything new. (他對任何新事物都極不信任)。

再者,distrust 和 mistrust 的形容詞分別為 distrustful 和 mistrustful,兩者均意為「不信任的,不相信的,懷疑的」,其後亦經常與介系詞 of 連用,但 mistrustful 有時也與 toward 連用,如 The old woman is distrustful of her children’s intentions. (這位老婦人懷疑她子女的意圖);They were profoundly distrustful of anything new. (他們對任何新事物都極不信任);She was mistrustful of Frank’s loyalty. (她懷疑法蘭克的忠誠);My wife was becoming increasingly mistrustful toward doctors. (我太太越來越不相信醫生)。

Q:at the bank 和 in the bank 以及 on the street 和 in the street 之間有何不同?

A:這些表示地點的介系詞片語都正確無誤且很常用,但它們之間的含意並不完全相同。首先來看 at the bank 和 in the bank,後者指的一定是在銀行裡面 (inside the bank),但前者可能是在銀行裡面或外面的任何地方,亦即沒有指出確切的地點。例如:

  • I will meet him at the supermarket. (我將和他在超市見面) (沒有指出確切的地點,可能在超市裡面,也可能在超市外面)
  • I will meet him at the checkout in the supermarket. (指出了確切的地點 — 在超市裡面的結帳櫃台)

至於 on the street 和 in the street 之間的區別,一般而言,這要看你從什麼角度來看。如果有一條街聚集了很多人,而當時你人是在距離不遠的另一條街上,你要說 There were a lot of people on the street.。如果當時你人就在那條有很多人的街上,你要說 There were a lot of people in the street.;簡言之,當你使用 in the street 時,你是以「那條街的一份子」或「人在那條街上」的角度來看事情,如 There are speed bumps every fifty meters in the street where I live. (在我住的那條街上,每 50 公尺就有減速丘) — speed bump 亦叫做 speed hump 或 sleeping policeman。

Divide, divide up (vv.)

Divide 可當及物和不及物動詞用,經常與介系詞 into 和 in 連用 (divide sth into pairs/groups/parts 等等),意為「分;分成;劃分;分割」,如 The teacher divided the class into three groups. (老師把全班分成三個小組);The film divides into two distinct halves. (影片分成明顯不同的兩半);He divided his students in half. (他將他的學生分成兩半)。這動詞亦常與 among 和 between 連用 (divide sth between/among sb),意為「分配;分發;分享」,如 The children divided the candy between/among themselves. (孩子們把糖果分吃了);After his death his property was divided between/among his children. (他死後,他的財產由他的孩子們平分);The chamber was nearly equally divided between conservative and liberal deputies. (議會中保守派和自由派議員的人數幾乎各半);The prize money will be equally divided between/among the three winners. (獎金將由三名優勝者均分)。

Divide 亦不時與 from 連用 (divide sth from sth),意為「使分開;使隔開」,如 A low wall divides our garden from theirs. (一道矮牆把我們的花園和他們的隔開);The railway divides his family’s land from the plains below. (鐵路把他家的土地與下面的平原隔開)。這動詞還可跟 over, on 和 upon 連用來表示「分裂;意見分歧」的意思,如 The Board of Directors divided on [upon, over] the new project. (董事會對這個新計劃意見分歧);My family divided on [upon, over] almost every political issue. (我家人對幾乎每個政治議題都各持己見)。此外,divide 與 with 連用的情況亦所在多有,其句型與 divide sth between/among sb 等量齊觀,即 divide sth with sb,意思同樣為「分配;分發;分享」,如 Work out how you would like to divide the money with us. (商量一下,你打算如何跟我們分這筆錢);You have to divide the cake with your sister. (你必須跟你妹妹分吃這塊蛋糕)。

Divide 也是數學上不可或缺的用字,其後接 by (divide sth by sth),意為「除以」,若接 into (divide sth into sth),則意為「除」,如 10 divided by 2 is/equals 5. (10 除以 2 等於 5);Divide 10 by 2 (10 除以 2 或用 2 除 10);2 divides into 10 5 times./Two divides into ten 5 times. (2 除 10 得 5);Divide 2 into 10 (2 除 10)。divide by 除了「除以」的意思外,還有一個比較普遍化的意思,那就是「使分歧;使分裂」,如 The ruling class was divided by internal conflicts. (統治階級因內部衝突而分裂);We are divided by our nationalities, our languages, and our religions. (我們因國籍、語言和宗教信仰的不同而分歧)。

至於 divide up,這片語與 divide 完全同義,意為「分成;分開;分割;分配;分發;分享」,如 The prize money will be equally divided up between/among the three winners. (獎金將由三名優勝者均分);The teacher divided the class up into three groups. (老師把全班分成三個小組);a secret Soviet-German pack for dividing/dividing up Europe in 1940 (1940 年瓜分歐洲的蘇德秘密條約)。職是之故,divide up 跟 break up, think up 及其它與 up 組成的片語一樣,在某些情況中會被視為贅詞,因為 up 被認為是多餘的。然而,divide 和 divide up 都是正規英語。這些 up 組成的片語動詞有些是慣用語 (break 和 break up 並非相同的動作 — break 可意為「打破」或「打碎」,而 break up 一定是「打碎」),有些是用來加強語氣或基於文體的需要。當 up 可省略時,保守派人士通常選擇省略 up 以求文體的簡潔。

Besides, apart from, aside from, except (for), in addition to (preps.)

這幾個字和片語都當介系詞用,且都意為「除…之外」。雖然表面上它們的意思似乎完全一樣,但實際上它們的含意並不盡相同,所以在應用上必須多加留意。

Besides 的意思是「除…之外還有」,亦即將其後的人事物「包括在內」,如 Five of us passed the exam besides John. (除了約翰通過考試之外,我們還有五人通過) — 通過考試的人包括約翰在內,亦即約翰也過關。

Except (for) 的意思是「不包括…在內」,亦即「除去…」,如 All of us passed the exam except John. (除約翰外,我們都通過考試) — 通過考試的人不包括約翰在內,亦即約翰未過關。

In addition to 除了在少數情況中不能與 besides 互換外,其他大多數情況都與 besides 等量齊觀,如 Milk, in addition to (= besides) fruit juices, is the best drink for children. (除果汁外,牛奶也是兒童的最佳飲料) — 兒童的最佳飲料包括果汁在內。

Apart from 和 aside from 則兼具 besides 和 except (for) 的意思,所以必須從上下文來判斷它們真正的意思,如 Apart/Aside from the new freshmen, all the students were there. (除新生外,所有學生都在那裡) — 新生不在那裡 (在此 apart/aside from = except for);Apart/aside from being too large, it just doesn’t suit me. (除了太大之外,它也不適合我) — 在此 apart/aside from = besides。值得一提的是,apart from 在美式英語和英式英語都是標準用法,而 aside from 主要是美國的用法,且以「不包括在內」的意思比較常見。

Above, over (preps.)

這兩個字皆可當介系詞、副詞和形容詞用,其中 above 還可當名詞用。就介系詞用法而言,除了幾個不同的意思外,它們均意為「(指位置) 在…的上面,在…之上」。因此,在許多上下文中,它們經常可互換使用,如 Our bedroom is above/over the kitchen. (我們的臥室在廚房上面);Let’s hang the oil painting above/over the fireplace. (讓我們把油畫掛在壁爐上方)。然而,在其他情況中,它們「在…的上方」的含意還是有所區別,本文將探討它們之間細微的差異。

Above (反義詞為 below) 僅表示某物處於另一物上方的位置,如 The moon is now above the trees. (月亮現在位於樹梢上);There’s a row of houses on the hillside above the river. (河邊山坡上有一排房子);Raise your hands above your head. (把你的手舉到頭上)。

Over (反義詞為 under) 是表示某物處於另一物正上方的位置,但往往用來表示上面的物體從一邊移動到另一邊的情況;事實上,當上面的物體有動作時,over 是這兩個介系詞當中唯一的用字,如 A plane flew over the house. (一架飛機飛過了房子);The sheep jumped over the wall. (羊跳過牆)。此外,當表示某物遮蔽、覆蓋另一物時也要使用 over,如 She put a scarf over her hair. (她把圍巾戴在頭上);We spread a carpet over the floor. (我們在地板鋪上了地毯);He pulled the blanket over his head and fell asleep. (他把毯子拉上來遮著頭睡著了);They built a roof over the courtyard. (他們給庭院蓋了個頂棚)。

Below, beneath, under, underneath (preps.)

這四個字皆可當介系詞和副詞用,其中 underneath 還可當形容詞和名詞用。就介系詞用法而言,除了若干不同的意思外,它們均意為「(指位置) 在…的下面,在…之下」,本文將僅就這意思來探討它們之間細微的差異。

Below (反義詞為 above) 僅表示某一事物處於另一事物下方的位置,如 The lake is almost 300 meters below the sea. (這湖低於海平面將近 300 公尺);There’s a river below the village. (在村子的下面有一條河);Her skirt came below her knees. (她的裙子長及膝蓋之下);There’s a gunshot wound below his left shoulder. (他的左肩下方有一處槍傷)。

Beneath 是表示某一事物處於另一事物正下方的位置,但含有兩物相距不是很近的意思,如 We took shelter beneath a huge tree. (我們躲在一棵大樹下);The boat sank beneath the waves. (船沈沒於波濤之下);They slept outside beneath the stars. (他們露宿在繁星之下);The submarine waited, far beneath the ship. (潛艇遠在那艘船的下面等待著)。

Under (反義詞為 over) 亦表示某一事物處於另一事物正下方的位置,但往往用來表示下面的物體從一邊移動到另一邊的情況;事實上,當下面的物體有動作時,under 是這四個介系詞當中唯一的用字,如 We took shelter under a huge tree. (我們躲在一棵大樹下);What are you wearing under your coat? (你外套裡面穿什麼?);We drove under the bridge and came out into the High Street. (我們開車經過橋下,來到商業大街);That boy crawled under the fence. (那男孩從柵欄下面爬了過去);What are you kids doing under the table? (你們這些小孩在桌子底下幹什麼?)。

Underneath 在「靜態」方面的用法與 under 相近,如 The baby girl liked to sit underneath/under the table. (這小女孩喜歡坐在桌子底下)。然而,underneath 主要在強調遮蓋、接觸或藏匿的意思,所以下面的例句宜使用 underneath 而不用 under:Everybody got underneath the tables to escape the gunfire. (大家都鑽到桌子下面躲避槍擊);The President was partially crushed underneath the helicopter as it hit the ground. (直昇機墜地時壓住了總統的部分身體);That letter had been pushed underneath the carpet by accident. (那封信偶然地被推到地毯的下面了);I’ll leave the key underneath the mat. (我會把鑰匙放在墊子下面)。