Q:I had intended to go abroad to study. 這句的意義為何?

A:這句話的意思是說「我原本想要出國唸書」,但其實並沒有出國。然而,這種句型比較少見,較常見的句型是 I intended to have gone abroad to study.。在英文中,還有 mean, plan, would like, expect, hope, wish 等幾個意為「想要,打算;希望,指望」的動詞跟 intend 一樣可以使用 “meant/planned/expected/hoped/wished… to have + P.P.” 句型,來表示過去計畫或安排好的事情沒有去做或過去的願望沒有實現或發生。例如:

  • He planned to have gone abroad. (他本來計劃出國 — 但他沒有去)
  • I hoped to have seen her. (我原本希望會見到她 — 但沒有見到)
  • I would like to have had your help. (我本想得到你的幫助 — 實際上沒有得到幫助)
  • The enemy expected to have found him. (敵人本來指望找到他 — 但沒有找到)
  • I intended to have finished my work last night. (我本想昨晚完成工作 — 實際上並未完成)

此外,”was/were to have + P.P.” 也是在表達過去計畫或安排好的事情沒有去做或過去的願望沒有實現或發生的意思。

Q:在省略 if 的條件句中,若為否定形式,好像不能將 “had not” 縮寫後移到句首 (如不能將 Had it not been… 寫成 Hadn’t it been…),這是否屬實?

A:沒錯! 英文的條件句有三種情況可以省略 if:當條件句的動詞部分含有 were (與現在事實相反)、had (與過去事實相反) 或 should (與未來事實相反 — 即假設的情況不太可能發生) 時,我們可將它們移到句首並省略 if,使句子變成倒裝句。例如:

  • If I were you, I wouldn’t do that.
    = Were I you, I wouldn’t do that. (如果我是你,就不會那麼做了)
  • If he had taken my advice, he might not have made such a bad mistake.
    = Had he taken my advice, he might not have made such a bad mistake. (要是他聽我的勸告,就不會犯這樣嚴重的錯誤了)
  • If I should have a chance to try it, I would do it in another way.
    = Should I have a chance to try it, I would do it in another way. (要是我有機會試一試,我會用另一種方法去做) — Should 係表示有機會一試的可能性微乎其微。
  • If we were to have children, we’d need to move to a bigger house.
    = Were we to have children, we’d need to move to a bigger house. (如果/要是將來有小孩,我們必須換一間較大的房子) –「were to + 原形動詞」是另一種與未來事實相反的條件句型。

如果條件句為否定形式,那麼在寫成倒裝句時,NOT 必須置於主詞的後面,不能將它與 were、had 或 should 縮寫後移到句首。例如:

  • Were she not my daughter, I’d have no hesitation in phoning the police. (如果她不是我女兒,我會毫不猶豫地打電話報警) (正)
  • Weren’t she my daughter, I’d have no hesitation in phoning the police. (誤)
  • Had it not rained last Saturday, we would’ve celebrated Tom’s birthday with a barbecue in the garden. (上週六要是沒下雨,我們會在花園烤肉慶祝湯姆的生日) (正)
  • Hadn’t it rained last Saturday, we would’ve celebrated Tom’s birthday with a barbecue in the garden. (誤)
  • Should you not wish to sign the contract, you must let them know before the end of June. (要是你不想簽約,你必須在六月底之前讓他們知道) (正)
  • Shouldn’t you wish to sign the contract, you must let them know before the end of June. (誤)

但如果將倒裝句改回正常的詞序,那麼 were、had 或 should 就可與 not 縮寫在一起。請看下面的例句 (其它條件句亦同):

  • If she weren’t my daughter, I’d have no hesitation in phoning the police and telling them about the crime that has been committed. (如果她不是我女兒,我會毫不猶豫地打電話報警,告訴警方她所犯的罪)

Q:在 The clothes I liked were much more expensive than my old ones. 這句中,如果省略 ones,它是否還合乎文法呢?

A:在這句中,ones 不能省略,否則就錯了! 英語是一種「當省 (省略) 則省,能省就省」的語言,但也不能省得太過份,而變得不符語法要求。例如,在 “Would you love to do me a favor? Yes, I’d love to.” (你想不想幫我個忙呢? 是的,我想) 這個問答中,最後面的 to 就不能省略,否則就錯了。

這位讀者顯然是在問名詞片語中名詞省略的問題。The clothes I liked were much more expensive than my old ones. (我喜歡的衣服比我的舊衣服貴很多) 中的 ones 之所以不能省略,乃因句中前後兩個名詞片語並非平行對稱 (in parallel construction)。若前後兩個名詞片語為平行對稱、對仗工整,那麼 ones 就可省略,而省略後的句子仍具備相同的語法功能。請看下面的例句:

  • Do you prefer red wine or white (wine)? (你比較喜歡紅酒還是白酒呢?)
  • I like the blue hat but he likes the green (hat). (我喜歡藍帽,但他喜歡綠帽)
  • This house is bigger than my last (house). (這間房子比我上一間大)

在這些句子中,white (wine), green (hat), last (house) 與前面的名詞片語 red wine, blue hat, this house (形容詞 + 名詞) 平行對稱。但在問題的句子中,the clothes (that) I liked 是一個用關係子句來修飾名詞的名詞片語,與 old clothes 並不對稱,所以句末的 clothes 不能省略,而為了避免重複,故用 ones 來替代。試與下句做個比較,當可瞭解平行對稱在此所扮演的角色有多麼重要;在下句中,my old (clothes) 與 my new clothes 平行對稱,所以後面的 clothes 可以完全省略 (甚至不必用 ones 來替代):

  • My new clothes were more expensive than my old. (我的新衣服比舊衣服貴)

一般而言,當名詞片語中被省略的名詞為可數名詞時,通常用代名詞 one(s) 來替代。例如:

  • I like the blue hat(s) but he likes the green one(s).
  • This house is bigger than my last one.
  • My new clothes are more expensive than my old ones.

在不定冠詞後面,one 是必要的。例如:

  • Do you want a large glass or a small one? (你想要大的杯子還是小的杯子呢?) (佳)
  • Do you want a large glass or a small? (不佳)

當兩個名詞片語不平行對稱時,one(s) 也是必要的,如問題中的句子。再看下面的例句:

  • I like the hat on the table but he likes the green one. (我喜歡桌上那頂帽子,但他喜歡綠色那一頂) (正)
  • I like the hat on the table but he likes the green. (誤)

若名詞片語中的名詞為不可數的物質名詞,那麼就不能使用 one(s) 了;所以,當兩個名詞片語不平行對稱時,該名詞必須重複寫出:

  • Do you prefer coffee with milk or Turkish coffee? (你比較喜歡牛奶咖啡還是土耳其咖啡呢?) (正)
    請注意:coffee with milk (牛奶咖啡),在英文中也叫做 white coffee,但 tea with milk (奶茶) 卻不能叫做 white tea。
  • Do you prefer coffee with milk or Turkish? (誤)
  • We ordered fish fried in butter and garlic but they served us steamed fish. (我們點了奶油蒜香煎魚,但他們卻端來蒸魚) (正)
  • We ordered fish fried in butter and garlic but they served us steamed. (誤)

試與下面文法正確的句子做比較:

  • Do you prefer Irish coffee or Turkish? (你比較喜歡愛爾蘭咖啡還是土耳其咖啡呢?)
  • We ordered fried fish but they served us steamed. (我們點了煎魚,但他們卻端來蒸魚)

Q:It couldn’t have happened to a nicer man! 這句是什麼意思?

A:這句的意思是「再也沒有人比你更棒了!」這是一句很常用的會話。當某人告訴你壞消息時,如 I’ve failed my exam. (我考試沒過),你可以回答:What a pity! (真遺憾!) 或 What a shame! (真可惜!) 或 I’m sorry to hear that. (聽到這樣我很難過)。如果某人告訴你好消息,如 I’ve passed my exam. (我通過考試了),你就可以說 It couldn’t have happened to a nicer guy!

此外,英文還有一句也很常用的會話,它的構造和理解方式亦頗為神似,那就是 I can’t/couldn’t agree (with you) more.。It couldn’t have happened to a nicer guy! 字面上的意思是「某事不可能發生在更好的人身上了」,換言之就是「再也沒有人比你更好了」;而 I can’t/couldn’t agree (with you) more. 字面上的意思是「我同意你的程度已達極限,無法再同意更多了」,換言之就是「我完全同意 (你的看法或意見等)」,即 I completely agree (with you).。

Q:What does she look like?、How does she look? 和 What is she like? 的用法和意思有何不同?

A:這三個句子是日常生活中經常聽到的問句,茲將它們的用法以及意思上的差異敘述如下:

How + do (does, did) + 主詞 (人) + look? / What + do (does, did) + 主詞 (人) + look like? — 用來詢問長相 (長得怎麼樣)、外表 (外表、穿著打扮看起來怎麼樣)。注意:How…? 通常指比較正面的外表,而 What…? 則是指不好不壞或比較負面的外表。

  • What did you look like when you were young? (你年輕時長得怎麼樣?)
    Short, fat, and spotty. (矮矮胖胖的,還有雀斑)
  • What does she look like? (她的穿著打扮看起來怎麼樣?)
    As if she hasn’t bought any new clothes in the last twenty years. (她好像20年沒買新衣服一樣)
  • How do I look? (我看起來怎麼樣?)
    Fantastic! That outfit really suits you. (棒極了! 那套衣服很適合你 — 很適合你的外表)

What + be + 主詞 (人) + like? — 用來詢問性格、個性 (某人是個怎麼樣的人)。

  • What’s Bob like? (鮑柏是個怎麼樣的人?)
    Always losing his temper. (動不動就發脾氣)
  • What’s John like? (約翰是個怎麼樣的人?)
    Very sociable. He’s the life and soul of any party. (很善於交際。他是社交聚會的靈魂人物)
  • What’s his wife like? (他的太太是個怎麼樣的人?)
    She’s serious and shy. I’ve never seen her smile. (她既嚴肅又害羞。我從未見到她笑過)

另一類似的問句 — 即把 “What + be + 主詞 (人) + like? ” 問句中的 What 改為 Who — 也很常見:

  • Who are you like in your family? (你在家中像誰?)
    My mother I suppose, we’re both quite moody. (我想是像我媽媽,我們兩人都很情緒化)

How + be + 主詞 (事物)? / What + be + 主詞 (事物) + like? — 用來詢問經驗。在詢問人家的經驗時,這兩種問句的用法和意思並無太大的差別。此外,這兩種問句也可用來詢問做好的食物或吃了的食物好不好,但一般大多使用 “How…?” 的問句形式。至於也可用來詢問心情和身體健康的 How + be + 主詞 (人) ? (如 “How are you today?”,”How is your wife?”),由於是大家所熟知的,在此就不再贅述了。

  • How was your exam? (你的試考得怎麼樣?)
    Fine. I think I did OK. (很好。我想我考得不錯)
  • What was your exam like? (你的試考得怎麼樣?)
    Fine. I think I did OK. (很好。我想我考得不錯)
  • What was your holiday like? (你度假度得怎麼樣?)
    Not wonderful. The hotel was awful. (不是很好。旅館糟透了)
  • How was your steak? (你的牛排怎麼樣?)
    Delicious. Beautifully tender and very juicy. (美味可口。鮮嫩多汁)

Q:我想要知道 be to 的用法,如 I’m to sleep on the sofa tonight. (今晚我將睡沙發)。

A:be to 是一種未來式。這種句型相當、相當常用,但它們所表示的意義不盡相同,因此有必要加以徹底瞭解,俾掌握其應用的精髓。「be to + 不定詞」在實際的應用上有下列幾項主要意思,而每項意思都很常見:

1. 表示正式的計畫或安排。

  • The Prime Minister is to make a state visit to Haiti next week. (總理下週將到海地進行國是訪問)
  • We are to receive a pay raise in line with inflation in September. (我們將在9月加薪以因應通貨膨脹)

2. 表示不久的將來幾乎肯定會發生的事件 — 通常用在報紙、電視和電台的新聞報導中。

  • A man is to appear in court later this morning charged with the murder of his father, mother, and wife. (一名被控殺害自己父母親和老婆的男子今天上午稍後將出庭應訊)
  • Work is to begin this week on the new bridge across the Nile. (尼羅河的新跨河大橋將在本週動工興建)

3. 表示別人給我們的正式指示,父母親或其他長輩給小孩的指示,或各種不同的指示、通知和公告。

在這項用法中,經常會出現否定的型態,即 be not to,這種否定型態都是表示「不許,不准,不可」(be not allowed to 或 be not permitted to) 的意思,相當於 mustn’t,但它所表示的「不許,不准,不可」是別人對我們所施加的「不許,不准,不可」。至於在肯定句中,be to 具有 have to (必須) 的意思。

  • You are not to leave the school until your parents arrive to collect you. (在你父母親來接你之前,你不可離開學校)
  • We’re not to smoke in the office. (我們不准在辦公室抽菸)
  • I’m to clean up my room before I’m allowed to go out. (我必須清掃房間後才可外出)
  • We are to look after our neighbors’ dog while they are away. (我們必須在鄰居不在時照顧他們的狗兒)

在給予指示時,我們常常會見到「be to + 被動態不定詞 (be + P.P.)」的用法;藥瓶上的用藥指示以及其他正式公告都是使用這樣的句型:

  • (The medicine is) To be taken three times a day after meals. (每天三餐飯後服用)
  • No food of any kind is to be taken into the examination room. (不准攜帶任何食物進入考場)

4. be to 亦經常用在條件句中來談論某種先決條件 (precondition)。

  • If we are to catch that train, we shall have to leave now. (如果我們要趕上那班火車,我們必須馬上動身)
  • If we are to solve the world’s pollution problems, we must address environmental issues now. (如果我們要解決世界污染問題,我們現在必須解決環保問題)

5. be to 後面亦可使用完成式不定詞 (have + P.P.) 來表示過去計畫好或安排好的事情沒有實現或發生 — 所以這裡的 BE 動詞只能用 was/were。這相當於在口語上用得比較多的 was/were supposed to。

  • I was to have gone on holiday with Miss Lin, but she couldn’t get time off work. (我原本要和林小姐去度假,但她無法請假)
    = I was supposed to go on holiday with Miss Lin, but she couldn’t get time off work.

Q:有人說 I am glad to see you tomorrow. 這句不對,這到底是怎麼回事呢,因為我認為這句的文法並沒有錯。

A:這個句子確實不合邏輯,因為 I’m glad to see you 指的是現在的時間,而 tomorrow 是未來時間,把兩者放在一起顯然矛盾。在英文中,形容詞後面的不定詞稱為「不定詞後修飾語」(infinitive postmodifier),係用來修飾它前面的形容詞。如果不定詞後修飾語指的是主動詞所表示的時間之後所發生的事件或狀態,那麼此不定詞必須使用進行式 (to + be + V-ing),而非簡單現在式 (to + 原形動詞)。所以,問題中的句子若要合乎邏輯或語法,我們必須將它改為 I am glad to be seeing you tomorrow. (我很高興明天會見到你)。茲再舉一例說明之:

  • She is very happy to be soon married to him.

這句也犯了相同的錯誤。She is very happy to be married to him. 只能表示她已嫁給他的意思,亦即她已嫁作人婦,現在兩人是夫妻。然而,從句中的 soon 可以看出,她是要說,她對於即將和他結婚感到樂不可支 (她還沒結婚)。所以這句應改為:

  • She is very happy to be marrying to him soon.
    = She is very happy to be getting married to him soon.
    = She is very happy that she is going to marry him soon.

Q:How many subsidiaries does your company have got? 這句對嗎?

A:在表示「有,具有」的意思時,英式英語可能使用 have/has 或 have/has got (美式英語通常使用 have/has),雖然這兩者是通用的,但 have/has got 用在口語的情況比較多。注意:have/has got 並非 get 的現在完成式。例如:She has got blue eyes. (她有一雙藍眼睛) (英);She has blue eyes. (英和美)。

若使用 have/has,我們通常使用助動詞 do/does 來構成否定和問句;若使用 have/has got,那麼我們通常使用助動詞 have/has 來構成否定和問句。是故,問題中的句子是不對的,因為它使用 has got,所以必須用 has 來作助動詞,不是用 does。這個句子應改為 How many subsidiaries has your company got? (貴公司有多少家子公司呢?) 或 How many subsidiaries does your company have?。

現在讓我們來看看 have/has 和 have/has got 的否定和問句:

  • I haven’t any money. (我一點錢也沒有)
    = I haven’t got any money.
    = I don’t have any money.
  • Have you got a car? Yes, I have. (你有車子嗎? 是的,我有) (英)
    = Do you have a car? Yes, I do. (英和美)
  • You’ve got a sore throat as well as a runny nose, haven’t you. (你喉嚨痛還有流鼻涕,對不對?)
  • You have enough money to buy a car, don’t you. (你有足夠的錢買車,對不對?)
    (注意:問句簡答及附加問句將因助動詞的不同而有所不同)

有一點必須注意的是,在否定句 I haven’t any money. 中,have 似乎兼具助動詞和一般動詞雙重角色,但這種用法只有在 have/has 及其後的名詞之間夾有其他語詞 (本句是 any) 時才行得通。所以,如果你說 I haven’t money.,那就錯了,但可以說 I have no money.。同樣地,He hasn’t (got) a very good temper. (他的脾氣不太好) 亦是同理可證。

另外,還有一點也要特別注意,那就是:過去式和未來式不可使用 got。因此,你只能說 Did you have a car when you were a student. (你當學生的時候有車嗎?) (英和美),不能說 Had you got a car when you were a student.。同樣地,你可以說 I am going to have some free time at the weekend so I can help you with your homework. (我週末有空,所以我能幫助你做家庭作業),但卻不可以說 I am going to have got some free time at the weekend so I can help you with your homework.。

至於 have/has to 與 have/has got to (必須) 的處理方式和文法觀念亦與上述相同。不過,要注意的是,雖然 have/has (got) to 在大多數情況下都可與 must 互換,但它們的含意卻有些不同。Have/has (got) to 是表示客觀上的需要,是別人加諸給我們的「必須」,而 must 是主觀上的必要,是自己認為的「必須」。試比較下列兩句:

  • Sorry, I can’t come out now. I’ve got to tidy up my room before I’m allowed out. (對不起,我現在不能出去。我必須收拾好自己的房間才可外出)
  • They said that they must work hard. (他們說他們必須努力工作)

最後值得一提的是,在一般口語中,have got to 和 have got a 往往唸成 “gotta”。例如:I gotta go. (= I have got to go) (我必須走了);Gotta pen? (=Have you got a pen?) (有筆嗎?)。

Q:Let’s go 和 Let us go 有何不同?

A:雖然 Let’s 是 Let us 的縮寫,但兩者的含意並不完全相同。Let’s 是表示將說話對象包括在內,如 Come on, Mary, let’s dance! (瑪麗,我們來跳舞吧!) — 這裡的 “us” 是指你跟你說話的對象 Mary。但 Let us 則不包括說話對象,如 Father, let us marry! (父親,讓我們結婚吧!) — 這裡的 “us” 是指你跟你的男友或女友;換言之,這是說你建議你父親讓你跟你的男友或女友結婚,不是你要跟你父親結婚。

值得一提的是,Let’s 的否定形式有三:最常見、也是被大多數人視為正規英語的是 Let’s not,如 Let’s not go. (我們別走)。但在英式英語中,有時亦用 Don’t let’s,如 Don’t let’s go.,而在美式英語中,有時亦用 Let’s don’t,如 Let’s don’t go.。其實,這三種寫法都是正規或標準英語 (Standard English)。

Q: Mary needn’t have taken her umbrella. 和 Mary didn’t need to take her umbrella. 有何不同?

A:needn’t have + P.P. 和 didn’t need to + 原形動詞都是在表示過去發生的事件。needn’t have done 是說本來不必做或用不著做,但卻做了;didn’t need to do 則是說不必做或用不著做,但有可能做了,也可能沒做。問題中 Mary needn’t have taken her umbrella. 的意思是說,瑪麗本來不用帶傘,但她卻帶了;而 Mary didn’t need to take her umbrella. 則是說她不必帶傘,但實際上可能帶了,也可能沒帶。因此,就 didn’t need to do something 的「不必」而言,實際上有沒有做,我們僅能從上下文來作判斷。請看下面的例句:

  1. I needn’t have prepared all that food. They phoned to say they wouldn’t be coming. (我原本不必準備那些食物。他們打電話來說不來了)
  2. I didn’t need to prepare all that food. They phoned to say they wouldn’t be coming. (我是不必準備那些食物的。他們打電話來說不來了)
  3. You needn’t have washed the dishes. I would’ve put them in the dishwasher. (你原本不必洗碗盤。我本來要把它們放到洗碗機去洗)
  4. You didn’t need to wash the dishes. I would’ve put them in the dishwasher. (你是不必洗碗盤的。我本來要把它們放到洗碗機去洗)
  5. The sun came out so we didn’t need to take any rainwear on the trip. (太陽出來了,所以此行我們不必帶雨衣了)
  6. We had plenty of petrol in the tank so we didn’t need to fill up. (油箱還有很多油,所以我們不必加油了)
  7. We didn’t need to wait for long for them. They arrived just after us. (我們不必等他們很久。他們就在我們之後到達)

上面第 1 至第 4 句都是不必做,但實際卻做了;第 1 和第 3 句很容易判斷,第 4 句也一看就知道,因為 I would’ve put them in the dishwasher. 是假設語氣,實際上碗盤並沒有被放入洗碗機裡面去洗,所以碗盤是用手洗的;第 2 句比較不容易判斷,但由於They phoned to say they wouldn’t be coming. 放在後面,因此認定應該是先準備好食物後,他們才來電說他們不來了。第 5 至第 7 句則是不必做,而事實上也沒做;第 7 句一看就知道,而第 5 和第 6 句應該也不難判斷,因為 The sun came out 和 We had plenty of petrol in the tank 發生在前 (原因),所以後面的動作就不必做了,實際上也沒有做 (結果)。

關於 need 的用法,還有一些地方需要注意。從上面的例句可知,這個字可作語氣助動詞或一般動詞用。當 need 作語氣助動詞用時,它幾乎都是用在否定句和 (少部分用在) 問句。若當一般動詞用,那麼它可用在肯定句、否定句和問句 (由此可知,在肯定句中,need 只能當一般動詞用)。所以,我們可以說

  • Need he study? (他必須唸書嗎?) 或
  • Does he need to study?

 

  • He needn’t study. (他不必唸書) 或
  • He doesn’t need to study.

 

  • He needs to study. (他必須唸書) (在肯定句中,need 只能用作一般動詞;主詞為第三人稱單數,動詞須加 s)

雖然 needn’t 和 don’t need to 可以互換,都是表示在立即的未來「不必」做某事 (請看下面的第 1 和第 2 句;我們也可將 need 用作名詞,如下面的第 3 句),但在表示「普遍的 (general) 不必」、而非「特定的 (specific) 不必」時,我們通常使用 don’t need to (第 4 句):

  1. You don’t need to water the garden this evening. It’s going to rain tonight. (今晚你不必到花園澆水了 — 因為今晚將會下雨)
  2. You needn’t water the garden this evening. It’s going to rain tonight.
  3. There’s no need to water the garden this evening. It’s going to rain tonight. (這三句都是指「今晚不必到花園澆水」此一特定事件的「不必」)
  4. You don’t need to pay for medical care in National Health Insurance hospitals. (在全民健保醫院看病不必付錢是「普遍的事件」。註:National Health Insurance 為我國全民健保,簡稱 NHI;National Health Service 為英國的全民健保,簡稱 NHS)